通译文库

(1). art brut: Art produced by people outside the established art world, particularly crude, inexperienced, or obscene works created by the untrained or the mentally ill.

涩艺术:语自法文。指非艺术领域的人们创造出来的艺术作品，特别是指精神病患者或未受训练的人所画的粗糙、不熟练，甚至粗鄙的作品。

(2). The term was coined by Jean Dubuffet, who regarded such works as the purest form of expression.

该词是法国画家迪比费(Jean Dubuffet)所创。他的绘画作品表现出他称之为真正涩艺术的那种真挚和质朴。

(3). Works of art accumulated by an individual or institution.

私人或公共机关积累艺术品。

(4). Such collections were made in the earliest civilizations; precious objects were stored in temples, tombs, sanctuaries, and palaces.

早期文明有一种艺术收藏方式，就是把大批的珍贵物品和工艺品贮存在庙宇、陵墓、圣所以及国王的宫殿和金库里。

(5). A taste for collecting per se developed in Greece (4th-1st century BC). The great art collections of the world grew out of private collections formed by royalty, aristocracy, and the wealthy.

希腊人在希腊化时代(公元前4世纪～公元前1世纪)首先兴起对艺术收藏本身的趣味。艺术收藏有悠久的历史，全世界的艺术博物馆大多是由皇室、贵族或富豪的大量私人藏品发展而来。

(6). By the 18th century, collectors were donating their holdings to the public and constructing buildings to house them (e.g., the Louvre Museum, Uffizi Gallery).

18世纪起，许多私人收藏的艺术品移交给博物馆收藏(如罗浮宫博物馆、乌菲兹美术馆〔Uffizi Gallery〕)。

(7). Wealthy industrialists in the U.S. played a prominent role in the 19th-20th century, and an unprecedented flow of masterpieces from Europe soon filled U.S. museums.

20世纪美国富有的实业家扮演重要角色，许多艺术杰作从欧洲流向美国，充实了美国的博物馆。

(8). Maintenance and preservation of works of art, their protection from future damage, deterioration, or neglect, and the repair or renovation of works that have deteriorated or been damaged.

对艺术品的修复及保存，以避免因疏忽、蓄意破坏或更通常因年代久远及长期使用使制成这些物品的材料受到不可避免的损坏。

(9). Research in art history has relied heavily on 20th-and 21st-century technical and scientific advances in art restoration.

艺术史的研究大大依赖20世纪艺术品修复的技术和科学方法的进步。

(10). art criticism :Description, interpretation, and evaluation of works of art, manifested in journal reviews, books, and patronage.

艺术批评:针对视觉艺术作品的美的价值与质量作描述、注释及评估的工作。

(11). "Bambocciati: Small, anecdotal paintings of everyday life made in Rome in the mid-17th century. The genre’s originator and most noteworthy exponent was the Dutch painter Pieter van Laer (1599-1642); the word derives from his nickname, Il Bamboccio ("Little Clumsy One," reflecting his physical deformity)."

"市井画:17世纪中期在罗马出现的一种描绘日常生活的绘画，画幅较小，内容多为趣闻轶事。范拉埃(Pieter van Laer,1599～1642)是此题材的创始人及最重要的代表。Bambocciati这一名称来自他的诨号"Il Bamboccio"(笨拙的小家伙)，反映出他生理上的缺陷。"

(12). Van Laer arrived in Rome from Haarlem c. 1625 and influenced various other northern European painters active in Rome. Their images depicting the lower classes in humorous or grotesque ways were condemned by the leading critics and painters. The bamboccianti (painters of bambocciati)influenced the Dutch genre painters Adriaen Brouwer and Adriaen van Ostade.

1625年左右范拉埃在从哈勒姆来到罗马，影响了众多活跃于罗马的北欧画家。他用幽默而怪诞的手法来描绘下层人民的形象受到主流画评家和画家的指责。市井画画家对荷兰风俗画画家布劳尔和奥斯塔德影响颇大。

(13). Barbizon school (1850～1850):Group of 19th-century French landscape painters. They were part of a larger European movement toward naturalism that made a significant contribution to realism in French landscape painting. Led by Theodore Rousseau and Jean-Fran?ois Millet, they attracted a large following of painters who came to live at Barbizon, a village near Paris;

巴比松画派(1850～1850):19世纪中期的法国风景画画派。是欧洲艺术朝自然主义发展的大规模运动的一部分，为法国风景画确立写实主义作出重大贡献。画派得名于巴比松村，该村地处巴黎附近的枫丹白露森林边缘，画派领袖鲁索和米勒吸引了大批画家来此定居

(14). most notable of this group were Charles-Fran?ois Daubigny, Narcisse-Virgile Díaz de la Pe?a, Jules Dupré, Charles-émile Jacque, and Constant Troyon. Each had his own style, but all emphasized painting out-of-doors directly from nature, using a limited palette, and creating atmosphere or mood in their landscapes.

其中后来颇为出名的有杜比尼、迪亚兹?德?拉?佩纳、杜佩雷、雅克和特罗容。他们各自有独特的风格，但都着重于直接描绘自然的户外风景，很少调色，在画中营造出气氛和感情。

(15). Also called tapa, the pieces are made by scratching or painting the designs. The most popular material is the inner bark of the paper mulberry tree. The bark is stripped off, soaked, and beaten until it is thin. Today hand-painted bark cloth is made in northern Australia, New Guinea, and parts of Melanesia. Styles and imagery vary by location, from naturalistic and stylized representations of human and animal forms to mythical beings, spirals, circles, and abstract motifs.

在树皮(亦称塔帕)做的非织物布料上涂抹或描绘象征性或抽象性图案的设计。最流行的材料是纸桑的内层书皮。作法是剥取树皮后，经浸渍和捶打使它变薄。如今在澳大利亚北部、新几内亚以及美拉尼西亚部分地方有手工绘制的树皮布料。样式和意象因地而异，从人类和动物形体的自然和风格化描绘到神秘生物、螺旋形、圆形以及抽象的图案都有。

(16). By the mid-19th century it was being used more approvingly, and it is still popularly used to describe works by 17th-century Dutch and Flemish painters

到19世纪中叶，此词增加了褒意，人们也极普遍地使用此词来指17世纪荷兰和法兰德斯画家的作品

(17). Gouache paints dry to a matte finish and, if desired, without visible brush marks. They can be applied thinly or thickly. A wide range of colours are available, including fluorescent and metallic pigments.

广告色画干时表面无光，如果要求效果，也能使刷痕看不见。它可以薄敷，也可以厚涂。有许多不同的颜色可用，包括荧光色和金属色。

(18). Grisaille : Painting technique by which an image is executed entirely in shades of gray and usually modeled to produce the illusion of sculpture or relief.

灰色单色画完全用灰色浓淡变化描绘形象，通常多突出立体感，以形成类似雕塑、特别是浮雕的视觉效果的绘画技法。

(19). In the 16th century grisaille enamels were developed in Limoges, France; the technique achieves a dramatic effect of light and shade and a pronounced sense of three-dimensionality.

16世纪时，纯灰色画珐琅艺术发展于法国利摩日，此技巧在光和影上达到戏剧性的效果和明显的三维空间立体感

(20). Etching: Method of engraving in which lines or textures are bitten, or etched, into a metal plate, usually copper, with acid. The image produced has a spontaneity of line that comes from drawing on the plate in the same direct way as with pen or pencil on paper.

蚀刻法用酸液将图案刻在金属版(通常为铜版)上的版画制作法。当印版压在微湿的纸张上时便把图案转印到纸上。版画即成。

(21). The first etchings date from the early 16th century, but the basic principle had been used earlier for the decoration of armour. the greatest of all etchers was Rembrandt. In the 20th century, etching was especially popular for book illustration. See also aquatint; engraving.

蚀刻法作画始于16世纪初期，但用蚀刻金属版制作版画的方法是从在甲冑上蚀刻图案的作法演变而来。最伟大的蚀刻画家要属林布兰(Rembrandt)。20世纪时，蚀刻法常被用来绘制书本的插画。

(22). "fresco painting : Method of wall painting in which water-based pigments are applied to wet, freshly laid lime plaster. The dry-powder colours, when mixed with water, penetrate the surface and become a permanent part of the wall. This technique is also known as buon fresco, or "true fresco," to distinguish it from fresco secco, or "dry fresco" (painting on dry plaster). "

湿壁画在壁上作画的方法，把水基颜料敷在新近涂抹的石灰泥上。当干粉颜料与水混合时，它会渗入表面而成为墙壁的永久部分。这种技术也称为好湿壁画或真湿壁画，有别于清壁画或干壁画(在干的灰泥上作画)。....(please sign in for more)

(23). Early Minoan, Greek, and Roman wall paintings were frescoes. The Italian Renaissance was the greatest period of fresco painting, as seen in the works of Cimabue, Giotto, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Correggio, and others. Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel and Raphael’s in the Vatican are the most famous of all.

早期的米诺斯、希腊、罗马壁画属于湿壁画。意大利文艺复兴是最伟大的湿壁画时期，契马布埃、乔托、马萨其奥、安吉利科、柯勒乔等人的作品可以证明。米开朗基罗在西斯汀礼拜堂的湿壁画和拉斐尔在梵谛冈大教堂的湿壁画....(please sign in for more)

(24). By the 18th century, fresco had been largely replaced by oil painting. In the early 20th century it was revived by Diego Rivera and others, often as a medium for political art. Fresco painting is also found in China and India.

到了18世纪，湿壁画已经大致被油画取代。20世纪早期，里韦拉(D.Rivera)等人复兴了湿壁画，常作为政治艺术的媒介。湿壁画也见于中国和印度。....(please sign in for more)

(25). genre painting: Painting of scenes from everyday life, of ordinary people at work or play, depicted in a realistic manner. In the 18th century, the term was used derogatorily to describe painters specializing in one type of picture, such as flowers, animals, or middle-class life.

风俗画:自日常生活取材、一般用写实手法描绘普通人工作或娱乐的图画。"风俗"(genre)一词起源于18世纪的法国，指专门画一种东西，如花卉、动物或中产阶级生活的画家。....(please sign in for more)

(26). gouache ,Also known as poster paint, designer’s colour, and body colour, it differs from transparent watercolour in that the pigments are bound by liquid glue, which is used as a thinner. The addition of white pigment lightens the tone and lends opacity.

广告色画亦称poster paint、designer’s color或body color。一种不透明水彩画，与透明水彩画的差异在于:水彩由稀释用的液态胶包覆。加入白色颜料后，色调转亮而变得不透明。....(please sign in for more)

(27). The suede finish and crisp lines characteristic of many Indian and Islamic miniature paintings is produced by this medium; it is used in Western screen and fan decoration and was used by modern artists such as Georges Rouault and Paul Klee.

许多印度绘画和伊斯兰绘画特有的绒面和轮廓线即由此种媒介制成，它也用于西方的屏饰和扇饰，还被鲁奥、克利等现代艺术家使用过。....(please sign in for more)

(28). It was used especially by 15th-century Flemish painters (e.g., Jan van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece, 1432)and in the late 18th century to imitate Classical sculpture in wall and ceiling decoration. It is sometimes used to produce monotone underpainting for translucent oil colours.

15世纪的法兰德斯画家(例如艾克的根特祭坛画〔1432〕)和18世纪后期的画家，在墙壁和天顶装饰画中尤多使用，藉以仿效古典雕塑效果。有时也被使用于替半透明的油画制造单色调的画底色。....(please sign in for more)

(29). Luminism : Painting style that emphasizes a particular clarity of light. It is characteristic of the works of a group of U.S. painters of the late 19th century, influenced by the Hudson River school. Typically landscapes or seascapes, with sky occupying nearly half the composition,

光亮主义:强调色彩光亮度的绘画风格。19世纪后期一批美国画家的作品特点，这些画家受到哈得逊河画派的影响。典型地，山水画或海景画的构图中近一半是天空。....(please sign in for more)

(30). luminist works are distinguished by cool, clear colours and meticulously detailed objects modeled by light. The most prominent luminist painters were John Frederick Kensett, Martin Johnson Heade, and Fitz Hugh Lane.

光亮主义作品的特点是用清澈的冷色调，用光线构型的物体的细致入微的细节描写。最著名的光亮主义画家是海德和雷恩。....(please sign in for more)

(31). "Madonna In Christian art, a depiction of the Virgin Mary. Though often shown with the infant Jesus, the Madonna (Italian: "My lady")may also be represented alone. Byzantine art was the first to develop a set of Madonna types-the Madonna and child enthroned, the Madonna as intercessor, the Madonna nursing the child, and so on. "

圣母像基督教艺术中圣母玛利亚的画像。圣母像一般伴有圣婴耶稣，但也有单独画玛利亚一人的。拜占庭艺术第一个发展一系列的圣母像--圣母怀抱圣婴坐在宝座上的形象、圣母当调解人的画像和圣母哺喂圣婴的画像等。....(please sign in for more)

(32). Western art adapted and added to the Byzantine types during the Middle Ages, producing images of the Virgin that sought to inspire piety through beauty and tenderness. In the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the most popular image of the Madonna foreshadowed the crucifixion, showing the Virgin looking gravely away from the playful child.

西方艺术在中世纪时采用并增加了拜占庭圣母像形式，所画的圣母像主要是表现出她的美和慈悲以鼓舞宗教热情。在文艺复兴时期和巴洛克时期，最盛行的圣母像是圣母预见了基督将被钉死于十字架上，于是在远处哀伤地看着正....(please sign in for more)

(33). Perspective :Depiction of three-dimensional objects and spatial relationships on a two-dimensional plane.

透视法:在二度空间平面上描绘立体(3D)物体和空间关系。....(please sign in for more)

(34). The vanishing point may have been known to the Greeks and Romans but had been lost until Filippo Brunelleschi rediscovered the principles of linear or "mathematical" perspective early in the 15th century.

希腊人和罗马人可能早已会使用这种消灭点的概念，但后来失传，一直到15世纪初意大利的布鲁内莱斯基才再度发现透视画法的直线或"数学"规则。....(please sign in for more)

(35). pointillism :In painting, the practice of applying small strokes or dots of contrasting colour to a surface so that from a distance they blend together.

点彩画法:绘画中指作画时在画面上点很小的色线或明暗对比强烈的色点，使人从一定的距离观看时具有融为一体的效果。....(please sign in for more)

(36). The term (and its synonym, divisionism)was first used to describe the paintings of

这一词汇(同义词为divisionism)最早被用来形容秀拉的画作。....(please sign in for more)

(37). Such fine prints are considered original works of art, even though they can exist in multiple copies.

这些精致的版画成品即使可多次复制，仍被视为艺术原作。....(please sign in for more)

(38). metal point or silverpoint ,Method of drawing with a small sharpened metal rod-of lead, copper, gold, or most commonly silver-on specially prepared paper or parchment. or silverpoint Silverpoint produces a fine gray line that oxidizes to a light brown; the technique is best suited for small-scale work.

金属尖笔亦称银尖笔,一种绘画方法，用一种带尖的小金属棒(铅、银、铜或金制，或通常是银制)在特别准备的纸或羊皮纸上作画。银尖笔可画出很细的灰色线条，氧化后变成浅褐色，这种技巧最适合小型作品。....(please sign in for more)

(39). It first appeared in medieval Italy and achieved great popularity in the 15th century. Albrecht Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci were its greatest exponents. It went out of fashion in the 17th century with the rise of the graphite pencil but was revived in the 18th century by the miniaturists and in the 20th century by Joseph Stella.

金属尖笔首先出现在中世纪的意大利，15世纪特别流行。最伟大的代表是画家杜勒和达文西。17世纪由于铅笔的兴起而过时，18世纪又为细密画家所采用，因而再度流行。20世纪的画家史戴拉(J.Stella)仍使....(please sign in for more)

(40). "mezzotint (1601～1700) (from Italian mezza tinta, "halftone")Engraving produced by pricking the surface of a metal plate with innumerable small holes that will hold ink. When the engraving is printed, the ink produces large areas of tone with soft, subtle gradations. Engraved or etched lines are often introduced to give the design greater definition. "

美柔汀法;磨刻凹版法(1601～1700)源自意大利语，意为"中间色"。指在金属版表面上有系统而均匀地刻刺出无数个可容受油墨的细孔，印刷后可产生一些大面积的柔美细腻的色调浓淡层次。雕刻或蚀刻的线条可以....(please sign in for more)

(41). Mezzotint was invented in Holland by German-born Ludwig von Siegen in the 17th century but thereafter was practiced primarily in England. Its adaptability to making colour prints made it ideal for the reproduction of paintings. After the invention of photography, it was rarely used. In recent years the technique has been revived, especially by U.S. and Japanese printmakers.

这种画法是由17世纪的荷兰画家西根所发明，但之后主要盛行于英国。这种方法适合彩色印刷，因此成为复制画作的理想技法。发明摄影术后，这种方法便很少使用了。但是近几年来这种技巧又开始盛行，尤其是在美国和日本....(please sign in for more)

(42). miniature painting :Small, detailed painting, usually a portrait, executed in watercolour on vellum (parchment), prepared card, copper, or ivory that can be held in the hand or worn as a piece of jewelry.

细密画:小型、精描细绘的画，通常为肖像画，用水彩画在羊皮纸、扑克牌、铜版或象牙板上，能拿在手里或作为珠宝佩戴。....(please sign in for more)

(43). The name derives from the minium, or red lead, used to emphasize initial letters in medieval illuminated manuscripts. Combining the traditions of illumination and the Renaissance medal, it flourished from the early 16th to the mid-19th century.

名称出自"铅丹"一词，以强调中世纪彩饰手抄本的首字母。结合了彩饰和对文艺复兴的纪念，细密画从16世纪早期到19世纪中期长盛不衰。....(please sign in for more)

(44). " The earliest datable examples were painted in France by Jean Clouet the Younger at the court of Francis I; in England H. Holbein the Younger produced masterpieces in miniature under Henry VIII and inspired a long tradition of the practice, known as "limning.""

可考的最早的作品由克卢埃在法国弗朗西斯一世的宫廷中完成。在英国，小霍尔拜因在亨利八世的宫廷中创作了许多细密画名作，影响了绘画实践的长期传统，被称为"肖像画"。....(please sign in for more)

(45). Nicholas Hilliard served as miniature painter to Elizabeth I for more than 30 years. In the 17th-18th centuries, painting in enamel on metal became popular in France. In Italy Rosalba Carriera introduced the use of ivory (c. 1700)as a luminous surface for transparent pigments, stimulating a great revival of the medium in the late 18th century.

希利雅德则为伊丽莎白一世当了三十多年的细密肖像画师。17～18世纪在法国流行用瓷漆在金属上作画。意大利的卡列拉采用象牙板作为透明颜料的发光面(1700?)，大大刺激了这一画法在18世纪后期的复兴。....(please sign in for more)

(46). By the mid-19th century miniature paintings were regarded as luxury items and rendered obsolete by the new medium of photography

到19世纪中期，细密画被认为是奢侈品，并且由于摄影这个新方法的出现而显得过时了....(please sign in for more)

(47). monotype , or monoprint .In art printmaking, a technique prized because of its unique textural qualities.

独幅版画亦作monoprint是一种版画制作技术，因其独特的材料而很昂贵。....(please sign in for more)

(48). Monoprint Monotypes are made by drawing with printer’s ink or oil paint onto glass or a plate of metal or stone. The drawing is then pressed by hand onto a sheet of absorbent paper or printed on an etching press. The pigment remaining on the plate is usually insufficient to make another print unless the original design is reinforced.

它使用墨水或油墨在玻璃或一片金属、石头上作画，然后用手压抹或者施行蚀刻法印刷在纸张上。印过后，版上残余的颜料通常不敷再印，除非再重复作同样的画。....(please sign in for more)

(49). Subsequent prints invariably differ from the first, because variations in repainting and printing are inevitable. In the 19th century, William Blake and Edgar Degas experimented with the technique

但重新上色和复印不可避免会同原件产生差异。在19世纪，布雷克和窦加曾用此画法作画。....(please sign in for more)

(50). pen drawing : Artwork executed wholly or in part with pen and ink, usually on paper.

钢笔画:全部或部分用钢笔、墨水绘成的美术作品。....(please sign in for more)

(51). pen drawing is fundamentally a linear method of making images. Artists who wish to suggest three-dimensional forms use hatching and cross-hatching or washes of colour laid onto the drawing with a brush. The three most common types of ink are black carbon ink, the finest type being Chinese ink or the modern India ink; brown ink, which was popular with the Old Masters; and iron gall, a chemical ink.

钢笔画基本上是运用线条的方式来创造形象。艺术家以画出一系列紧密并列的影线或交叉并行线，或用画笔涂上颜色来增加立体感。常用的墨水有三种:炭黑墨水，最好是中国墨水或现代印度墨水;棕色墨水，以前的大师经常使....(please sign in for more)

(52). The three pen types are quill, reed, and metal. Quill pens were most popular for their flexibility and ability to be sharpened to extreme fineness. Steel became the predominant pen type by the 20th century.

这三种钢笔为羽管笔、芦杆笔和金属笔。羽管笔因具有弹性并能修饰出细腻的线条而最受欢迎。到20世纪，钢制笔成为主要类型。....(please sign in for more)

(53). Because pigment applied with pastel does not change in colour value, the final effect can be seen immediately.

由于粉彩笔所用的颜料在色彩值上并未改变，效果立可显现。....(please sign in for more)

(54). Pastel remains on the surface of the paper and thus can be easily obliterated unless protected by glass or a fixative spray of glue size or gum solution.

色粉浮在纸上，如果不加玻璃或喷胶(或树胶溶液)防护就很易擦掉。....(please sign in for more)

(55). When pastel is applied in short strokes or linearly, it is usually classed as drawing; when it is rubbed, smeared, and blended to achieve painterly effects, it is often regarded as a painting medium.

粉彩笔用于短笔画或线条画时通常归为素描;如果加以打磨、涂抹或是混合以取得绘画效果时通常被看作绘画工具。....(please sign in for more)

(56). pencil drawing : Drawing executed with a pencil, an instrument made of graphite enclosed in a wood casing. Though graphite was mined in the 16th century, its use by artists is not known before the 17th century. In the 17th-18th century, graphite was used primarily to make preliminary sketches for more elaborate work in another medium, seldom for finished works.

铅笔画:指用铅笔(石墨作芯，木作壳)绘制的图画。石墨虽在16世纪已被开采出来，但17世纪以前画家还不懂得去使用。17～18世纪，石墨主要用于画出初步轮廓，而后再用其它画笔更详细的作画，很少用于成品。....(please sign in for more)

(57). By the late 18th century, an ancestor of the modern pencil was constructed by inserting a rod of natural graphite into a hollow cylinder of wood. Pencil rods produced from mixtures of graphite and clays, true prototypes of the modern graphite pencil, were introduced in 1795. This improvement allowed for better control and encouraged wider use.

18世纪晚期出现了现代铅笔的始祖，由一段石墨芯嵌入中空的圆柱形木头制成。笔芯由石墨和黏土的混合物制成，现代石墨铅笔的真正原型在1795年才出现。这一改进使铅笔比较好控制而为更多人使用。....(please sign in for more)

(58). The great masters of pencil drawing kept the elements of a simple linearism with limited shading, but many artists in the 18th-19th century created elaborate effects of light and shade by rubbing the soft graphite particles with a tightly rolled paper or chamois.

铅笔画的大师主要以简单线条作画，加以少量的阴影。但18～19世纪的许多画家以卷紧的纸或羊皮来磨擦软石墨以营造光影的细致效果。....(please sign in for more)

(59). Mural :Painting applied to and made integral with the surface of a wall or ceiling. Its roots can be found in the universal desire that led prehistoric peoples to create cave paintings-the desire to decorate their surroundings and express their ideas and beliefs.

壁画:描绘在建筑物墙壁和天花板上并与其成为一体的绘画。其起源可追溯到原始人在洞穴内的绘画创作-这些作品体现出他们渴望装饰居住环境的愿望，同时也反映出他们的理想和信仰。....(please sign in for more)

(60). The Romans produced large numbers of murals in Pompeii and Ostia, but mural painting (not synonymous with fresco)reached its highest degree of creative achievement in Europe with the work of such Renai

罗马人在庞贝和奥斯蒂亚创作了大量壁画。在文艺复兴时期壁画(与湿壁画不同义)创作在创造性方面取得了空前绝后的成就。这一时期涌现出马萨其奥、安吉利科、达文西、米开朗基罗和拉斐尔等大师。....(please sign in for more)

(61). In the 20th century, the mural was embraced by artists of the Cubist and Fauve movements in Paris, revolutionary painters in Mexico (e.g., Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros), and Depression-era artists under the sponsorship of the U.S. government (e.g., Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton).

20世纪，壁画受巴黎立体派和野兽派艺术家，墨西哥革命派艺术家(如里韦拉、奥罗兹科和西凯罗斯)以及美国政府赞助下的消沈时期艺术家(如沙恩和班顿)的影响，而再度振兴。....(please sign in for more)

(62). oil painting : Painting in oil colours, a medium consisting of pigments suspended in drying oils. Oil paint enables both fusion of tones and crisp effects and is unsurpassed for textural variation. The standard consistency of oil paint is a smooth, buttery paste. It is applied with brushes or a thin palette knife, usually onto a stretched linen canvas. Finished oil paintings are often coated with varnish.

油画:用易于干燥的油料调和磨研过的颜料所作的绘画。油画最易融合色调，容易取得运线自如和干净利落的效果，可用笔和薄而富有弹性的调色刀。标准画布用亚麻布制成，通常在完成的油画上罩以上光油，以保护画面免受磨....(please sign in for more)

(63). Oil as a painting medium is recorded as early as the 11th century, though the practice of easel painting with oil colours stems directly from 15th-century techniques of painting with tempera . In the 16th century oil colour emerged as the basic painting material in Venice; it has been the most widespread medium for easel paintings ever since.

早在11世纪就有用油作绘画材料的记载，而以油画颜色制作架上绘画则来自15世纪的蛋彩画技法。17世纪油画技术用威尼斯传统作画，笔法明确而简练;颜色明暗厚薄并置，这种画法对以后的画家影响甚大....(please sign in for more)

(64). pastel :Drawing medium consisting of fragile, finger-size crayons called pastels, made of powdered pigments combined with a minimum of nongreasy binder (usually gum tragacanth or, from the mid-20th century, methyl cellulose).

粉彩笔:一种易碎、如手指粗细的绘画粉笔，采用粉状颜料与最低量的非油脂胶调制而成(通常是用托拉甘树胶，从20世纪中叶起，改用甲基纤维素调制)。....(please sign in for more)

(65). In Western art, illusions of volume and space are generally created by use of the linear perspective system, based on the observation that objects appear to shrink and parallel lines to converge at an infinitely distant vanishing point as they recede in space from the viewer.

西方美术通常运用直线透视法体系以构成立体感和空间感。当一物体离观者越远，看上去就觉得越小，因此各物体并行线和平面都会聚到无穷远的一些消灭点上。....(please sign in for more)

(66). Linear perspective dominated Western painting until the late 19th century, when Paul Cézanne flattened the conventional picture plane. The Cubists and other 20th-century painters abandoned depiction of three-dimensional space altogether.

直线透视法在西方绘画中持续到19世纪末，直到塞尚将文艺复兴传统的画面空间平面化为止。立体派和20世纪的其它画家都放弃了这种三度空间的画法。....(please sign in for more)

(67). printmaking :Art form consisting of the production of images, usually on paper but occasionally on fabric, parchment, plastic, or other support, by various techniques of multiplication, under the direct supervision of or by the hand of the artist.

版画制作:指利用各种多元性技术来制作图像的艺术形式，由艺术家直接监制或亲手制作，通常印制在纸上，偶尔也利用纺织品、羊皮纸、塑料或其它素材。....(please sign in for more)

(68). The major techniques are relief printing, intaglio printing, surface printing such as lithography, and stencil printing.

主要技术包括凸版、凹版和平版(如平印和孔版版画)。....(please sign in for more)

(69). Salon des Refusés (1863): Art exhibition held in 1863 in Paris by command of Napoleon III for those artists whose works had been refused by the jury of the official Salon.

选者沙龙(1863):1863年经拿破仑三世批准、为被官方沙龙评选委员会拒绝接受作品的艺术家在巴黎举办的美术展览。....(please sign in for more)

(70). Among the exhibitors were Camille Pissarro, Henri Fantin-Latour, James M. Whistler, and édouard Manet, whose scandalous Le Déjeuner sur l’herbe was officially regarded as an affront to taste.

参加展览的有毕沙罗、方丹-拉图尔、惠斯勒以及马奈。其中马奈诽谤性的《草地上的午餐》被认为是对传统美学的公然冒犯。....(please sign in for more)

(71). Sandpainting: Type of art practiced among the Navajo and Pueblo Indians and among Tibetan Buddhists.

沙画:流行于纳瓦霍人和普韦布洛印第安人和藏族佛教徒中的艺术类型....(please sign in for more)

(72). Sandpaintings are stylized, symbolic pictures (in Tibet, mandalas)prepared by trickling small quantities of crushed, coloured sandstone, charcoal, or pollen on a background of clean smoothed sand.

沙画是风格化的象征性图画，用少量碾碎的各种颜色的沙石、木炭、花粉以及其它干材料，慢慢撒在一块洁净而平整的沙底上而成。....(please sign in for more)

(73). The pictures may include representations of deities, cosmic worlds, animals, lightning, rainbows, plants, and other symbols described in chants that accompany various religious and healing rites.

图案包括各种神像、动物、闪电、彩虹、植物以及与各种仪式有关的圣歌中所描绘的其它符号。这些赞美的圣歌与各种宗教和治疗仪式有关。....(please sign in for more)

(74). Scroll painting : Art form practiced primarily in the Far East.

画卷:主要在远东流行的艺术。....(please sign in for more)

(75). The two dominant types are the Chinese landscape scroll and the Japanese narrative scroll.

两种主要形式是中国的山水画卷和日本的叙事画卷。....(please sign in for more)

(76). China’s greatest contribution to the history of painting, the landscape hand scroll, reached its greatest period in the 10th-11th century with such masters as Xu Daoning and Fan Kuan.

山水画卷为中国在绘画史上的最大的贡献，在10～11世纪达到高峰，代表大师有许道宁和范宽。....(please sign in for more)

(77). The Japanese scroll paintings of the 12th-13th century developed the storytelling potential of painting to its greatest extent. In the earliest, Murasaki Shikibu’s literary masterpiece The Tale of Genji, the narrative is told in pictures alternating with text.

12～13世纪的日本画卷将绘画的叙事潜能发挥到极至。最早的形式为紫式部的文学巨著《源氏物语》的配画，以画面和文字交替出现。....(please sign in for more)

(78). Eventually the illustration stood nearly alone. Typical subjects were the stories and biographies popular duri ng Japan’s Middle Ages.

后来插图单独成为一部分。典型的主题是日本中世纪时流行的故事和传记。....(please sign in for more)

(79). trompe l’oeil: Style of representation in which a painted object is intended to deceive the viewer into believing it is the object itself.

视幻觉法:绘画中将物体逼真地表现出来，让观看者以为是真的物体本身的艺术技巧。....(please sign in for more)

(80). First employed by the ancient Greeks,trompe l’oeil was also popular with Roman muralists.

最初在古希腊得到使用，后在罗马壁画家中也很流行。....(please sign in for more)

(81). Since the early Renaissance, European painters have used trope l’oeil to create false frames from which the contents of still lifes or portraits seemed to spill and to paint windowlike images that appeared to be actual openings in a wall or ceiling.

从文艺复兴早期起，欧洲的画家们开始使用视幻觉法来给静物或肖像画加上一个假的画框，使人物形象栩栩如生，而风景则像是在墙上或天花板上的真实景色一样。....(please sign in for more)

(82). still-life painting : Depiction of inanimate objects for the sake of their qualities of form, colour, texture, composition, and sometimes allegorical or symbolical significance.

静物画:对无生命物体的描写，以表现它们的外表、色彩、质地、组成，有时则是为表现它们的寓言或象征意义。....(please sign in for more)

(83). Still lifes were painted in ancient Greece and Rome. In the Middle Ages they occur in the borders of illuminated manuscripts. The modern still life emerged as an independent genre in the Renaissance.

古希腊和古罗马就开始有静物画，中世纪出现于灯光照明后的文稿边缘，文艺复兴时期成为独立的绘画形式。....(please sign in for more)

(84). Netherlandish still lifes often depicted skulls, candles, and hourglasses as allegories of mortality, or flowers and fruits to symbolize nature’s cycle.

早期的尼德兰静物画以头盖骨、蜡烛和沙漏寓意死亡，以四季鲜花和果实象征大自然的循环。....(please sign in for more)

(85). Several factors contributed to the rise of still life in X century: an interest in realistic representation, the rise of a wealthy middle class that wanted artworks to decorate its homes, and increased demand for paintings of secular subjects other than portraits in the wake of the Reformation.

观察并进而如实地描绘周围实物细节的兴趣，希望以艺术作品装饰家庭的富裕中产阶级的兴起，以及由于宗教改革的长期影响人们对肖像画以外的世俗性绘画的需求不断增长，都是导致静物画在x世纪兴起的因素。....(please sign in for more)

(86). Dutch and Flemish painters were the masters of still life in the 17th century. From the 18th century until the rise of nonobjective painting after World War II, France was the centre of still-life painting.

荷兰和尼德兰画家是17世纪静物画大师，从18世纪到第二次世界大战后非客观绘画兴起这段时间里，法国一直是静物画的中心。....(please sign in for more)

(87). The art of painting is the expression of ideas and emotions, with the creation of certain aesthetic qualities, in a two-dimensional visual language.

绘画艺术利用两维视觉语言创造出美的特征，从而表达情感和观念。....(please sign in for more)

(88). The elements of this language-its shapes, lines, colours, tones, and textures-are used in various ways to produce sensations of volume, space, movement, and light on a flat surface.

这种语言的要素:形态，线条，色彩，光度和质感，被用在各种方式中，以产生量感，空间感，运动感和光线感于平面上。....(please sign in for more)

(89). These elements are combined into expressive patterns in order to represent real or supernatural phenomena, to interpret a narrative theme, or to create wholly abstract visual relationships.

这些要素被组合成具有表现力的各个模式，以表现真实或虚构的现象．或表现叙事主题。或创造抽象的视觉形象。....(please sign in for more)

(90). The artist communicates his visual message in terms of the sensuous qualities and expressive possibilities and limitations of a particular medium, technique, and form.

艺术家用某一特定媒介，技巧和形式的情感特征，表现力和局限性来传递其思想。....(please sign in for more)

(91). Earlier cultural tradition of tribes, religions, guilds, royal courts, and states-largely controlled the craft, form, imagery, and subject matter of painting and determined its function, whether ritualistic, devotional, decorative, entertaining, or educational.

古老的文化传统:部落文化，宗教文化，行会，宫廷和国家机构，在很大程度上控制着绘画艺术的技法，形态，意象和主题，并决定着其各种功能:祭祀的，祈祷的，装饰的，娱乐的和教育的功能。....(please sign in for more)

(92). Painters were employed more as skilled artisans than as creative artists.

画家更多地是被当作熟练的画匠而非有独创性的艺术家。....(please sign in for more)

(93). Later, the far East and Renaissance Europe saw the emergence of the fine artist, with the social status of scholar and courtier, who signed his work, decided its design and often its subject and imagery

后来，远东和欧洲文艺复兴时期才出现了真正的美术家，享有学者和朝臣的社会地位。他们签约作画，并决定其构思，以及主题和意象。....(please sign in for more)

(94). Each of the elements has special expressive qualities. Line is an intuitive, primeval convention for representing things.

每一要素都有其独特表现特征。线条是一种直观和原始的表现事物的形式。....(please sign in for more)

(95). The formal relationships of thick with thin lines, of broken with continuous, and of sinuous with jagged are forces of contrast and repetition in the design of many paintings in all periods of history.

粗线条与细线条，连续线条与不连贯线条，弯曲线条和锯齿状线条等之间的形式关系，在任何时代的众多绘画构图中具有对比和反复的效果。....(please sign in for more)

(96). Variations in the painted contours of images also provide a direct method of describing the volume, weight, spatial position, and textual characteristics of things.

绘画中形象的轮廓变化也是直接表现形象的量感，实体感，空间位置和质地特征的方法。....(please sign in for more)

(97). In addition to painted contours, a linear design is composed of all the edges of tone and colour masses, the axial directions of images, and the lines implied by alignments of shapes across the picture.

除了轮廓外，线条构图还包括光度和色彩团块的边缘。形象的轴向，以及整幅画中各种形态队列中暗含的线条。....(please sign in for more)

(98). Shape and mass include all areas of different colour, tone, and texture, as well as individual and grouped images. Most styles of painting will generally be found to have been clearly based on such archetypal forms: square, circle, triangular, and oval.-

形态和团块包括不同色彩．光度，质感和单个或集体形象的所有方面。绝大多数绘画流派都明显地是基于下列原型形态:方形，圆形，三角形或椭圆形。....(please sign in for more)

(99). The principal dimensions of colour in painting are the attributes of hue, tone, and intensity. Red, yellow and blue are the basic hues from which all others on the chromatic scale can be made by mixture.

绘画的色彩主要有色调，光度和饱和度三种属性。红、黄、青是原色，色彩环中其它色彩可通过原色的混合而获得。....(please sign in for more)

(100). Tone is a colour’s relative degree, or value, of lightness or darkness. Each hue has an intrinsic tonal value in relation to others on the chromatic scale; orange is inherently lighter than red, for instance, and violet is darker than green.

光度是指色彩的相对明暗程度。每一色彩与色彩环中其它色彩有相对不同的光度:枯黄色固有地比红色明快，紫色则比绿色暗淡。....(please sign in for more)