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理想国|The Republic

第七卷|BOOK VII

属类： 双语小说 【分类】双语小说 -[作者: 柏拉图] 阅读：[2785]
《 字+字- 行+行- 页+页- 字+字- 行+行- 页+页- 》
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苏：接下来让我们把受过教育的人与没受过教育的人的本质比作下述情形。让我们想象一个洞穴式的地下室，它有一长长通道通向外面，可让和洞穴一样宽的一路亮光照进来。有一些人从小就住在这洞穴里，头颈和腿脚都绑着，不能走动也不能转头，只能向前看着洞穴后壁。让我们再想象在他们背后远处高些的地方有东西燃烧着发出火光。在火光和这些被囚禁者之间，在洞外上面有一条路。沿着路边已筑有一带矮墙。矮墙的作用象傀儡戏演员在自己和观众之间设的一道屏障，他们把木偶举到屏障上头去表演。

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格：我看见了。

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苏：接下来让我们想象有一些人拿着各种器物举过墙头，从墙后面走过，有的还举着用木料、石料或其它材料制作的假人和假兽。而这些过路人，你可以料到有的在说话，有的不在说话。

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格：你说的是一个奇特的比喻和一些奇特的囚徒。

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苏：不，他们是一些和我们一样的人。你且说说看，你认为这些囚徒除了火光投射到他们对面洞壁上的阴影而外，他们还能看到自己的或同伴们的什么呢？

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格：如果他们一辈子头颈被限制了不能转动，他们又怎样能看到别的什么呢？

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苏：那么，后面路上人举着过去的东西，除了它们的阴影而外，囚徒们能看到它们别的什么吗？

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格：当然不能。

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苏：那么，如果囚徒们能彼此交谈，你不认为，他们会断定，他们在讲自己所看到的阴影时是在讲真物本身吗？

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格：必定如此。

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苏：又，如果一个过路人发出声音，引起囚徒对面洞壁的回声，你不认为，囚徒们会断定，这是他们对面洞壁上移动的阴影发出的吗？

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格：他们一定会这样断定的。

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苏：因此无疑，这种人不会想到，上述事物除阴影而外还有什么别的实在。

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格：无疑的。

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苏：那么，请设想一下，如果他们被解除禁锢，矫正迷误，你认为这时他们会怎样呢？如果真的发生如下的事情：其中有一人被解除了桎梏，被迫突然站了起来，转头环视，走动，抬头看望火光，你认为这时他会怎样呢？他在做这些动作时会感觉痛苦的，并且，由于眼花潦乱，他无法看见那些他原来只看见其阴影的实物。如果有人告诉他，说他过去惯常看到的全然是虚假，如今他由于被扭向了比较真实的器物，比较地接近了实在，所见比较真实了，你认为他听了这话会说些什么呢？如果再有人把墙头上过去的每一器物指给他看，并且逼他说出那是些什么，你不认为，这时他会不知说什么是好，并且认为他过去所看到的阴影比现在所看到的实物更真实吗？

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格：更真实得多呀！

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苏：如果他被迫看火光本身，他的眼睛会感到痛苦，他会转身走开，仍旧逃向那些他能够看清而且确实认为比人家所指示的实物还更清楚更实在的影象的。不是吗？

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格：会这样的。

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苏：再说，如果有人硬拉他走上一条陡峭崎岖的坡道，直到把他拉出洞穴见到了外面的阳光，不让他中途退回去，他会觉得这样被强迫着走很痛苦，并且感到恼火；当他来到阳光下时，他会觉得眼前金星乱蹦金蛇乱串，以致无法看见任何一个现在被称为真实的事物的。你不认为会这样吗？

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格：噢，的确不是一下子就能看得见的。

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苏：因此我认为，要他能在洞穴外面的高处看得见东西，大概需要有一个逐渐习惯的过程。首先大概看阴影是最容易，其次要数看人和其他东西在水中的倒影容易，再次是看东西本身；经过这些之后他大概会觉得在夜里观察天象和天空本身，看月光和星光，比白天看太阳和太阳光容易。

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格：当然啰。

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苏：这样一来，我认为，他大概终于就能直接观看太阳本身，看见他的真相了，就可以不必通过水中的倒影或影象，或任何其他媒介中显示出的影象看它了，就可以在它本来的地方就其本身看见其本相了。

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格：这是一定的。

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苏：接着他大概对此已经可以得出结论了：造成四季交替和年岁周期，主宰可见世界一切事物的正是这个太阳，它也就是他们过去通过某种曲折看见的所有那些事物的原因。

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格：显然，他大概会接着得出这样的结论。

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苏：如果他回想自己当初的穴居、那个时候的智力水平，以及禁锢中的伙伴们，你不认为，他会庆幸自己的这一变迁，而替伙伴们遗憾吗？

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格：确实会的。

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苏：如果囚徒们之间曾有过某种选举，也有人在其中赢得过尊荣，而那些敏于辨别而且最能记住过往影象的惯常次序，因而最能预言后面还有什么影象会跟上来的人还得到过奖励，你认为这个既已解放了的人他会再热衷于这种奖赏吗？

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对那些受到囚徒们尊重并成了他们领袖的人，他会心怀嫉妒，和他们争夺那里的权力地位吗？或者，还是会象荷马所说的那样，他宁愿活在人世上做一个穷人的奴隶，受苦受难，也不愿和囚徒们有共同意见，再过他们那种生活呢？

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格：我想，他会宁愿忍受任何苦楚也不愿再过囚徒生活的。

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苏：如果他又回到地穴中坐在他原来的位置上，你认为会怎么样呢？他由于突然地离开阳光走进地穴，他的眼睛不会因黑暗而变得什么也看不见吗？

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格：一定是这样的。

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苏：这时他的视力还很模糊，还没来得及习惯于黑暗——

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再习惯于黑暗所需的时间也不会是很短的。如果有人趁这时就要他和那些始终禁锢在地穴中的人们较量一下“评价影象”，他不会遭到笑话吗？人家不会说他到上面去走了一趟，回来眼睛就坏了，不会说甚至连起一个往上去的念头都是不值得的吗？要是把那个打算释放他们并把他们带到上面去的人逮住杀掉是可以的话，他们不会杀掉他吗？

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格：他们一定会的。

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苏：亲爱的格劳孔，现在我们必须把这个比喻整个儿地应用到前面讲过的事情上去，把地穴囚室比喻可见世界，把火光比喻太阳的能力。如果你把从地穴到上面世界并在上面看见东西的上升过程和灵魂上升到可知世界的上升过程联想起来，你就领会对了我的这一解释了，既然你急于要听我的解释。至于这一解释本身是不是对，这是只有神知道的。但是无论如何，我觉得，在可知世界中最后看见的，而且是要花很大的努力才能最后看见的东西乃是善的理念。我们一旦看见了它，就必定能得出下述结论：它的确就是一切事物中一切正确者和美者的原因，就是可见世界中创造光和光源者，在可理知世界中它本身就是真理和理性的决定性源泉；任何人凡能在私人生活或公共生活中行事合乎理性的，必定是看见了善的理念的。

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格：就我所能了解的而言，我都同意。

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苏：那么来吧，你也来同意我下述的看法吧，而且在看到下述情形时别感到奇怪吧：那些已达到这一高度的人不愿意做那些琐碎俗事，他们的心灵永远渴望逗留在高处的真实之境。如果我们的比喻是合适的话，这种情形应该是不奇怪的。

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格：是不足为怪的。

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苏：再说，如果有人从神圣的观察再回到人事；他在还看不见东西还没有变得足够地习惯于黑暗环境时，就被迫在法庭上或其它什么地方同人家争讼关于正义的影子或产生影子的偶像，辩论从未见过正义本身的人头脑里关于正义的观念。如果他在这样做时显得样子很难看举止极可笑，你认为值得奇怪吗？

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格：一点也不值得奇怪。

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苏：但是，凡有头脑的人都会记得，眼睛有性质不同的两种迷盲，它们是由两种相应的原因引起的：一是由亮处到了暗处，另一是由暗处到了亮处。凡有头脑的人也都会相信，灵魂也能出现同样的情况。他在看到某个灵魂发生迷盲不能看清事物时，不会不加思索就予以嘲笑的，他会考察一下，灵魂的视觉是因为离开了较光明的生活被不习惯的黑暗迷误了的呢，还是由于离开了无知的黑暗进入了比较光明的世界，较大的亮光使它失去了视觉的呢？于是他会认为一种经验与生活道路是幸福的，另一种经验与生活道路是可怜的；如果他想笑一笑的话，那么从下面到上面去的那一种是不及从上面的亮处到下面来的这一种可笑的。

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格：你说的非常有道理。

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苏：如果这是正确的，那么关于这些事，我们就必须有如下的看法：教育实际上并不象某些人在自己的职业中所宣称的那样。他们宣称，他们能把灵魂里原来没有的知识灌输到灵魂里去，好象他们能把视力放进瞎子的眼睛里去似的。

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格：他们确曾有过这种说法。

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苏：但是我们现在的论证说明，知识是每个人灵魂里都有的一种能力，而每个人用以学习的器官就象眼睛。——整个身体不改变方向，眼睛是无法离开黑暗转向光明的。同样，作为整体的灵魂必须转离变化世界，直至它的“眼睛”得以正面观看实在，观看所有实在中最明亮者，即我们所说的善者。

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是这样吧？

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格：是的。

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苏：于是这方面或许有一种灵魂转向的技巧，即一种使灵魂尽可能容易尽可能有效地转向的技巧。它不是要在灵魂中创造视力，而是肯定灵魂本身有视力，但认为它不能正确地把握方向，或不是在看该看的方向，因而想方设法努力促使它转向。

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格：很可能有这种技巧。

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苏：因此，灵魂的其它所谓美德似乎近于身体的优点，身体的优点确实不是身体里本来就有的，是后天的教育和实践培养起来的。但是心灵的优点似乎确实有比较神圣的性质，是一种永远不会丧失能力的东西；因所取的方向不同，它可以变得有用而有益也可以变得无用而有害。有一种通常被说成是机灵的坏人。你有没有注意过，他们的目光是多么敏锐？他们的灵魂是小①的，但是在那些受到他们注意的事情上，他们的视力是够尖锐的。他们的“小”不在于视力贫弱，而在于视力被迫服务于恶，结果是，他们的视力愈敛锐，恶事就也做得愈多。

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①“小”这个字的涵义，类似我国所谓“君子、小人”中的“小”。

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格：这是真的。

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苏：但是，假设这种灵魂的这一部分从小就已得到锤炼，已经因此如同释去了重负，——这种重负是这个变化世界里所本有的，是拖住人们灵魂的视力使它只能看见下面事物的那些感官的纵欲如贪食之类所紧缠在人们身上的。——假设重负已释，这同一些人的灵魂的同一部分被扭向了真理，它们看真理就会有同样敏锐的视力，象现在看它们面向的事物时那样。

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格：很可能的。

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苏：那么，没受过教育不知道真理的人和被允许终身完全从事知识研究的人，都是不能胜任治理国家的。这个结论不也是很对的，而且还是上述理论的必然结论吗？因为没受过教育的人不能把自己的全部公私活动都集中于一个生活目标；

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而知识分子又不能自愿地做任何实际的事情，而是在自己还活着的时候就想象自己已离开这个世界进入乐园了。

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格：对。

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苏：因此，我们作为这个国家的建立者的职责，就是要迫使最好的灵魂达到我们前面说是最高的知识，看见善，并上升到那个高度；而当他们已到达这个高度并且看够了时，我们不让他们象现在容许他们做的那样。

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格：什么意思？

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苏：逗留在上面不愿再下到囚徒中去，和他们同劳苦共荣誉，不论大小。

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格：你这是说我们要委曲他们，让他们过较低级的生活了，在他们能过较高级生活的时候？

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苏：朋友，你又忘了，我们的立法不是为城邦任何一个阶级的特殊幸福，而是为了造成全国作为一个整体的幸福。它运用说服或强制，使全体公民彼此协调和谐，使他们把各自能向集体提供的利益让大家分享。而它在城邦里造就这样的人，其目的就在于让他们不致各行其是，把他们团结成为一个不可分的城邦公民集体。

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格：我忘了。你的话很对。

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苏：那么，格劳孔，你得看到，我们对我们之中出现的哲学家也不会是不公正的；我们强迫他们关心和护卫其它公民的主张也是公正的。我们将告诉他们：“哲学家生在别的国家中有理由拒不参加辛苦的政治工作，因为他们完全是自发地产生的，不是政府有意识地培养造就的；一切自力更生不是被培养而产生的人才不欠任何人的情，因而没有热切要报答培育之恩的心情，那是正当的。但是我们已经培养了你们——既为你们自己也为城邦的其他公民——做蜂房中的蜂王和领袖；你们受到了比别人更好更完全的教育，有更大的能力参加两种生活①。因此你们每个人在轮值时必须下去和其他人同住，习惯于观看模糊影象。须知，一经习惯，你就会比他们看得清楚不知多少倍的，就能辨别各种不同的影子，并且知道影子所反映的东西的，因为你已经看见过美者、正义者和善者的真实。因此我们的国家将被我们和你们清醒地管理着，而不是象如今的大多数国家那样被昏昏然地管理着，被那些为影子而互相殴斗，为权力——被当作最大的善者——

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而相互争吵的人统治着。事实是：在凡是被定为统治者的人最不热心权力的城邦里必定有最善最稳定的管理，凡有与此相反的统治者的城邦里其管理必定是最恶的。”

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①哲学生活和政治生活。

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格：一定的。

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苏：那么，我们的学生听到我们的这种话时，还会不服从，还会在轮到每个人值班时拒绝分担管理国家的辛劳吗（当然另一方面，在大部分的时间里他们还是被允许一起住在上面的）？

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格：拒绝是不可能的。因为我们是在向正义的人提出正义的要求。但是，和当前每个国家中的统治者相反，他们担任公职一定是把它当作一种义不容辞的事情看待的。

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苏：因为，事实上，亲爱的朋友，只有当你能为你们未来的统治者找到一种比统治国家更善的生活时，你才可能有一个管理得好的国家。因为，只有在这种国家里才能有真正富有的人来统治。当然他们不是富有黄金，而是富有幸福所必需的那种善的和智慧的生活。如果未来的统治者是一些个人福利匮乏的穷人，那么，当他们投身公务时，他们想到的就是要从中攫取自己的好处，如果国家由这种人统治，就不会有好的管理。因为，当统治权成了争夺对象时，这种自相残杀的争夺往往同时既毁了国家也毁了统治者自己。

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格：再正确不过。

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苏：除了真正的哲学生活而外，你还能举出别的什么能轻视政治权力的？

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格：的确举不出来。

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苏：但是我们就是要不爱权力的人掌权。否则就会出现对手之间的争斗。

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苏：那么，除了那些最知道如何可使国家得到最好管理的人，那些有其他报酬可得，有比政治生活更好的生活的人而外，还有什么别的人你可以迫使他们负责护卫城邦的呢？

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格：再没有别的人了。

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苏：于是，你愿意让我们来研究如下的问题吗？这种人才如何造就出来？如何把他们带到上面的光明世界，让他们象故事里说的人从冥土升到天上那样？

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格：当然愿意。

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苏：这看来不象游戏中翻贝壳那样容易，这是心灵从朦胧的黎明转到真正的大白天，上升到我们称之为真正哲学的实在。

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苏：那么，我们难道不应该研究一下，什么学问有这种能耐？

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格：当然应该。

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苏：那么，格劳孔，这种把灵魂拖着离开变化世界进入实在世界的学问是什么呢？说到这里我想起了：我们不是曾经说过吗，这种人年轻的时候必须是战场上的斗士？

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格：我们是说过这话的。

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苏：因此，我们正在寻找的这门学问还必须再有一种能耐。

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格：什么能耐？

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苏：对士兵不是无用的。

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格：如果可能的话，当然必须有。

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苏：前面我们曾经让他们受体操和音乐教育。

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苏：体操关心的是生灭事物①；因为它影响身体的增强与衰弱。

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①体操与可变世界联系。

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格：这很明白。

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苏：因此，它不会是我们所寻觅的那门学问。

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格：不是的。

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苏：那么，这门学问是我们前面描述过的音乐教育吗？

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格：如果你还记得的话，音乐是和体育相对的，它通过习惯①以教育护卫者，以音调培养某种精神和谐（不是知识），以韵律培养优雅得体，还以故事（或纯系传说的或较为真实的）的语言培养与此相近的品质。可是这些途径没有任何一个是能通向你所正在寻求的那种善的。

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①习惯或意见，与真正的知识相对。

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苏：你的记忆再准确不过了。因为事实上其中没有这类的因素。但是，啊呀，格劳孔，那么我们寻求的这种学问是什么呢？因为手工技艺似乎又全都是有点低贱的。

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格：确实是的。可是除去音乐、体操和手艺，剩下的还有什么别的学问呢？

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苏：这样吧，如果我们除此之外再想不出什么别的了，我们就来举出一个全都要用到的东西吧。

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格：那是什么？

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苏：嗯，例如一个共同的东西——它是一切技术的、思想的和科学的知识都要用到的，它是大家都必须学习的最重要的东西之一。

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格：什么东西？

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苏：一个平常的东西，即分别“一”、“二”、“三”，总的说，就是数数和计算。一切技术和科学都必须做这些，事实不是这样吗？

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格：是这样。

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苏：战术不也要做这些吗？

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格：必定的。

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苏：因此巴拉米德斯每次在舞台上出现就使阿伽门农成了一个极可笑的将军。巴拉米德斯宣称，他发明了数目之后组织排列了在特洛亚的大军中的各支部队，点数了船只和其他一切；仿佛在这之前它们都没有被数过，而阿伽门农看来也不知道自己有多少步兵，既然他不会数数。你是否注意过这些？还有，在那种情况下，你认为阿伽门农是一个什么样的将军呢？

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格：我看他是一个荒谬可笑的将军，如果那是真的话。

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苏：那么，我们要不要把能计算和数数定为一个军人的必不可少的本领呢？

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格：这是最不可少的本领，如果他要能够指挥军队，甚至只是为了要做好一个普通人。

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苏：那么，你是不是同我一样想的是这门学问呢？

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格：哪一门学问？

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苏：它似乎就是我们正在寻找的那些本性能引领思想的学问之一。但是没有一个人在正确地使用它，虽然它确实能引导灵魂到达实在。

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格：你说的什么意思？

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苏：我将努力把我心里的想法解释给你听，我将告诉你，我是如何在自己心里区分两种事物的——有我所指的那种牵引力的事物和没有那种牵引力的事物的。如果你愿和我一起继续讨论下去，并且告诉我，你同意什么不同意什么，那时我们就会更清楚，我的想法对不对了。

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格：请说吧。

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苏：好，你知道感觉中的东西有些是不需要求助于理性思考的，因为感官就能胜任判断了。但是还有一些是需要求助于理性的，因为感官对它们不能作出可靠的判断。

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格：你显然是指的远处的东西或画中的东西。

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苏：你完全没有领会我的意思。

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格：那么，你说的是什么意思呢？

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苏：不需要理性思考的东西我是指的不同时引起相反感觉的东西，需要理性帮助的东西我是指的那些能同时引起相反感觉的东西（这时感官无法作出明确的判断），与距离的远近无关。我作了如下说明之后，你就更明白了。例如这里有三个手指头：小指、无名指、中指。

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格：好。

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苏：我举手指为例，请你别忘了我是把它们当作近处可见的东西。但是关于它们我还要你注意一点。

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格：哪一点？

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苏：每一个指头看上去都一样是一个指头，在这方面无论它是中间的那个还是两边上的某一个，是白的还是黑的，是粗的还是细的，等等，都无所谓。因为这里没有什么东西要迫使平常人的灵魂再提出什么问题或思考究竟什么是手指的问题了，因为视觉官能从未同时向心灵发出信号，说手指也是手指的相反者。

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苏：这种感觉当然是不会要求或引起理性思考的。

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格：当然。

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苏：但是手指的大和小怎么样呢：区别它们是大还是小，视觉能胜任吗？哪一个手指在中间哪一个在边上对视觉有什么分别吗？同样，触觉能区分粗和细、软和硬吗？在认识这一类性质时，不是事实上所有的感觉都有缺陷吗？它们是象下述这样起作用的：首先例如触觉，既关系着硬，就必定也关系着软，因此它给灵魂传去的信号是：它觉得同一物体又是硬的又是软的。不是这样吗？

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苏：如果触觉告诉灵魂，同一物体是硬的也是软的，心灵在这种情况下一定要问，触觉所说的硬是什么意思，不是吗？或者，如果有关的感觉说，重的东西是轻的，或轻的东西是重的，它所说的轻或重是什么意思？

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格：的确，这些信息是心灵所迷惑不解的，是需要加以研究的。

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苏：因此，在这种情况下，灵魂首先召集计算能力和理性，努力研究，传来信息的东西是一个还是两个。

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苏：如果答案说是两个，那么其中的每一个都是不同的一个吗？

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苏：因此，如果各是一个，共是两个，那么，在理性看来它们是分开的两个；因为，如果它们不是分离的，它就不会把它们想作两个，而想作一个了。

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格：对的。

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苏：我们说过，视觉也看见大和小，但两者不是分离的而是合在一起的。是吧？

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苏：为了弄清楚这一点，理性“看”大和小，不得不采取和感觉相反的方法，把它们分离开来看，而不是合在一起看。

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格：真的。

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苏：接着我们不是要首先面临这样一个问题吗：大和小究竟是什么？

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苏：这就是我们所以使用“可知事物”和“可见事物”这两名称的原因。

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格：太对了。

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苏：我刚才说有的事物要求思考有的事物不要求思考，并且把那些同时给感官以相反刺激的事物定义为要求思考的事物，把那些不同时造成相反刺激的事物定义为不要求理性思考的事物。我说这些话正是在努力解释这个意思。

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格：现在我明白了，并且跟你的看法一致了。

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苏：那么，你认为数和“一”属于这两种事物中的哪一种呢？

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格：我不知道。

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苏：那你就根据我们已说过的话进行推理吧。因为，如果“一”本身就是视觉所能完全看清楚的，或能被别的感觉所把握的，它就不能牵引心灵去把握实在了，象我们在以手指为例时所解释的那样。但是，如果常常有相反者与之同时被看到，以致虽然它显得是一个，但同时相反者也一样地显得是一个，那么，就会立刻需要一个东西对它们作出判断，灵魂就会因而迷惑不解，而要求研究，并在自身内引起思考时，询问这种“一”究竟是什么。这样一来，对“一”的研究便会把心灵引导到或转向到对实在的注视上去了。

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格：关于“一”的视觉确实最有这种特点，因为我们能看见同一事物是一，同时又是无限多。

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苏：如果这个原理关于“一”是真的，那么也就关于所有的数都是真的，不是吗？

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苏：还有，算术和算学全是关于数的。

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苏：这个学科看来能把灵魂引导到真理。

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格：是的。它超过任何学科。

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苏：因此，这个学科看来应包括在我们所寻求的学科之中。因为军人必须学会它，以便统帅他的军队；哲学家也应学会它，因为他们必须脱离可变世界，把握真理，否则他们就永远不会成为真正的计算者。

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苏：我们的护卫者既是军人又是哲学家。

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苏：因此，格劳孔，算学这个学问看来有资格被用法律规定下来；我们应当劝说那些将来要在城邦里身居要津的人学习算术，而且要他们不是马马虎虎地学，是深入下去学，直到用自己的纯粹理性看到了数的本质，要他们学习算术不是为了做买卖，仿佛在准备做商人或小贩似的，而是为了用于战争以及便于将灵魂从变化世界转向真理和实在。

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格：你说得太好了。

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苏：而且，既然提到了学习算术的问题，我觉得，如果人们学习它不是为了做买卖而是为了知识的话，那么它是一种精巧的对达到我们目的有许多用处的工具。

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格：为什么？

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苏：正如我们刚刚说的，它用力将灵魂向上拉，并迫使灵魂讨论纯数本身；如果有人要它讨论属于可见物体或可触物体的数，它是永远不会苟同的。因为你一定知道，精于算术的人，如果有人企图在理论上分割“一”本身，他们一定会讥笑这个人，并且不承认的，但是，如果你要用除法把“一”分成部分，他们就要一步不放地使用乘法对付你，不让“一”有任何时候显得不是“一”而是由许多个部分合成的。

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格：你的话极对。

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苏：格劳孔，假如有人问他们：“我的好朋友，你们正在论述的是哪一种数呀？——既然其中“一”是象你们所主张的那样，每个“一”都和所有别的“一”相等，而且没有一点不同，“一”内部也不分部分。”你认为怎么样？你认为他们会怎么答复？

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格：我认为他们会说，他们所说的数只能用理性去把握，别的任何方法都不行。

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苏：因此，我的朋友，你看见了，这门学问看来确是我们所不可或缺的呢，既然它明摆着能迫使灵魂使用纯粹理性①通向真理本身。

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①或“理性本身”。

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格：它确实很能这样。

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苏：再说，你有没有注意到过，那些天性擅长算术的人，往往也敏于学习其他一切学科；而那些反应迟缓的人，如果受了算术的训练，他们的反应也总会有所改善，变得快些的，即使不谈别的方面的受益？

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格：是这样的。

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苏：其次，我认为，我们不容易发现有什么学科学习起来比算术更难的，象它一样难的也不多。

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格：确实如此。

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苏：因所有这些缘故，我们一定不要疏忽了这门学问，要用它来教育我们的那些天赋最高的公民。

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格：我赞成。

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苏：那么，这门功课就定下来了算是一门。下面让我们再来考虑接在它后面的一门功课，看它对我们是否有用。

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格：哪一门功课？你是说的几何学吗？

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苏：正是它。

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格：它在军事上有用是很明显的。因为，事关安营扎寨，划分地段，以及作战和行军中排列纵队、横队以及其它各种队形，指挥官有没有学过几何学是大不一样的。

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苏：不过，为满足军事方面的需要，一小部分几何学和算术知识也就够了。这里需要我们考虑的问题是，几何学中占大部分的较为高深的东西是否能帮助人们较为容易地把握善的理念。我们认为每一门迫使灵魂转向真实之这一最神圣部分——它是灵魂一定要努力看的——所在的学科都有这种作用。

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格：你说得对。

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苏：如果它迫使灵魂看实在，它就有用。如果它迫使灵魂看产生世界①，它就无用。

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①或“生灭世界”、“可变世界”。

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And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened:—Behold! human beings living in a underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of them, over which they show the puppets.

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I see.

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And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent.

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You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners.

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Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave?

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True, he said; how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to move their heads?

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And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows?

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Yes, he said.

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And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were naming what was actually before them?

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Very true.

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And suppose further that the prison had an echo which came from the other side, would they not be sure to fancy when one of the passers-by spoke that the voice which they heard came from the passing shadow?

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No question, he replied.

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To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.

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That is certain.

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And now look again, and see what will naturally follow if the prisoners are released and disabused of their error. At first, when any of them is liberated and compelled suddenly to stand up and turn his neck round and walk and look towards the light, he will suffer sharp pains; the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his former state he had seen the shadows; and then conceive some one saying to him, that what he saw before was an illusion, but that now, when he is approaching nearer to being and his eye is turned towards more real existence, he has a clearer vision,—what will be his reply? And you may further imagine that his instructor is pointing to the objects as they pass and requiring him to name them,—will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancy that the shadows which he formerly saw are truer than the objects which are now shown to him?

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Far truer.

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And if he is compelled to look straight at the light, will he not have a pain in his eyes which will make him turn away to take refuge in the objects of vision which he can see, and which he will conceive to be in reality clearer than the things which are now being shown to him?

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True, he said.

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And suppose once more, that he is reluctantly dragged up a steep and rugged ascent, and held fast until he is forced into the presence of the sun himself, is he not likely to be pained and irritated? When he approaches the light his eyes will be dazzled, and he will not be able to see anything at all of what are now called realities.

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Not all in a moment, he said.

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He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of the upper world. And first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven; and he will see the sky and the stars by night better than the sun or the light of the sun by day?

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Certainly.

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Last of all he will be able to see the sun, and not mere reflections of him in the water, but he will see him in his own proper place, and not in another; and he will contemplate him as he is.

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Certainly.

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He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives the season and the years, and is the guardian of all that is in the visible world, and in a certain way the cause of all things which he and his fellows have been accustomed to behold?

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Clearly, he said, he would first see the sun and then reason about him.

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And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the den and his fellow-prisoners, do you not suppose that he would felicitate himself on the change, and pity them?

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Certainly, he would.

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And if they were in the habit of conferring honours among themselves on those who were quickest to observe the passing shadows and to remark which of them went before, and which followed after, and which were together; and who were therefore best able to draw conclusions as to the future, do you think that he would care for such honours and glories, or envy the possessors of them? Would he not say with Homer,

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’Better to be the poor servant of a poor master,’

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and to endure anything, rather than think as they do and live after their manner?

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Yes, he said, I think that he would rather suffer anything than entertain these false notions and live in this miserable manner.

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Imagine once more, I said, such an one coming suddenly out of the sun to be replaced in his old situation; would he not be certain to have his eyes full of darkness?

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To be sure, he said.

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And if there were a contest, and he had to compete in measuring the shadows with the prisoners who had never moved out of the den, while his sight was still weak, and before his eyes had become steady (and the time which would be needed to acquire this new habit of sight might be very considerable), would he not be ridiculous? Men would say of him that up he went and down he came without his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of ascending; and if any one tried to loose another and lead him up to the light, let them only catch the offender, and they would put him to death.

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No question, he said.

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This entire allegory, I said, you may now append, dear Glaucon, to the previous argument; the prison-house is the world of sight, the light of the fire is the sun, and you will not misapprehend me if you interpret the journey upwards to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world according to my poor belief, which, at your desire, I have expressed—whether rightly or wrongly God knows. But, whether true or false, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right, parent of light and of the lord of light in this visible world, and the immediate source of reason and truth in the intellectual; and that this is the power upon which he who would act rationally either in public or private life must have his eye fixed.

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I agree, he said, as far as I am able to understand you.

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Moreover, I said, you must not wonder that those who attain to this beatific vision are unwilling to descend to human affairs; for their souls are ever hastening into the upper world where they desire to dwell; which desire of theirs is very natural, if our allegory may be trusted.

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Yes, very natural.

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And is there anything surprising in one who passes from divine contemplations to the evil state of man, misbehaving himself in a ridiculous manner; if, while his eyes are blinking and before he has become accustomed to the surrounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts of law, or in other places, about the images or the shadows of images of justice, and is endeavouring to meet the conceptions of those who have never yet seen absolute justice?

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Anything but surprising, he replied.

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Any one who has common sense will remember that the bewilderments of the eyes are of two kinds, and arise from two causes, either from coming out of the light or from going into the light, which is true of the mind’s eye, quite as much as of the bodily eye; and he who remembers this when he sees any one whose vision is perplexed and weak, will not be too ready to laugh; he will first ask whether that soul of man has come out of the brighter life, and is unable to see because unaccustomed to the dark, or having turned from darkness to the day is dazzled by excess of light. And he will count the one happy in his condition and state of being, and he will pity the other; or, if he have a mind to laugh at the soul which comes from below into the light, there will be more reason in this than in the laugh which greets him who returns from above out of the light into the den.

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That, he said, is a very just distinction.

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But then, if I am right, certain professors of education must be wrong when they say that they can put a knowledge into the soul which was not there before, like sight into blind eyes.

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They undoubtedly say this, he replied.

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Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already; and that just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the instrument of knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being, and of the brightest and best of being, or in other words, of the good.

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Very true.

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And must there not be some art which will effect conversion in the easiest and quickest manner; not implanting the faculty of sight, for that exists already, but has been turned in the wrong direction, and is looking away from the truth?

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Yes, he said, such an art may be presumed.

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And whereas the other so-called virtues of the soul seem to be akin to bodily qualities, for even when they are not originally innate they can be implanted later by habit and exercise, the virtue of wisdom more than anything else contains a divine element which always remains, and by this conversion is rendered useful and profitable; or, on the other hand, hurtful and useless. Did you never observe the narrow intelligence flashing from the keen eye of a clever rogue—how eager he is, how clearly his paltry soul sees the way to his end; he is the reverse of blind, but his keen eye-sight is forced into the service of evil, and he is mischievous in proportion to his cleverness?

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Very true, he said.

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But what if there had been a circumcision of such natures in the days of their youth; and they had been severed from those sensual pleasures, such as eating and drinking, which, like leaden weights, were attached to them at their birth, and which drag them down and turn the vision of their souls upon the things that are below—if, I say, they had been released from these impediments and turned in the opposite direction, the very same faculty in them would have seen the truth as keenly as they see what their eyes are turned to now.

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Very likely.

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Yes, I said; and there is another thing which is likely, or rather a necessary inference from what has preceded, that neither the uneducated and uninformed of the truth, nor yet those who never make an end of their education, will be able ministers of State; not the former, because they have no single aim of duty which is the rule of all their actions, private as well as public; nor the latter, because they will not act at all except upon compulsion, fancying that they are already dwelling apart in the islands of the blest.

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Very true, he replied.

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Then, I said, the business of us who are the founders of the State will be to compel the best minds to attain that knowledge which we have already shown to be the greatest of all—they must continue to ascend until they arrive at the good; but when they have ascended and seen enough we must not allow them to do as they do now.

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What do you mean?

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I mean that they remain in the upper world: but this must not be allowed; they must be made to descend again among the prisoners in the den, and partake of their labours and honours, whether they are worth having or not.

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But is not this unjust? he said; ought we to give them a worse life, when they might have a better?

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You have again forgotten, my friend, I said, the intention of the legislator, who did not aim at making any one class in the State happy above the rest; the happiness was to be in the whole State, and he held the citizens together by persuasion and necessity, making them benefactors of the State, and therefore benefactors of one another; to this end he created them, not to please themselves, but to be his instruments in binding up the State.

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True, he said, I had forgotten.

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Observe, Glaucon, that there will be no injustice in compelling our philosophers to have a care and providence of others; we shall explain to them that in other States, men of their class are not obliged to share in the toils of politics: and this is reasonable, for they grow up at their own sweet will, and the government would rather not have them. Being self-taught, they cannot be expected to show any gratitude for a culture which they have never received. But we have brought you into the world to be rulers of the hive, kings of yourselves and of the other citizens, and have educated you far better and more perfectly than they have been educated, and you are better able to share in the double duty. Wherefore each of you, when his turn comes, must go down to the general underground abode, and get the habit of seeing in the dark. When you have acquired the habit, you will see ten thousand times better than the inhabitants of the den, and you will know what the several images are, and what they represent, because you have seen the beautiful and just and good in their truth. And thus our State, which is also yours, will be a reality, and not a dream only, and will be administered in a spirit unlike that of other States, in which men fight with one another about shadows only and are distracted in the struggle for power, which in their eyes is a great good. Whereas the truth is that the State in which the rulers are most reluctant to govern is always the best and most quietly governed, and the State in which they are most eager, the worst.

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Quite true, he replied.

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And will our pupils, when they hear this, refuse to take their turn at the toils of State, when they are allowed to spend the greater part of their time with one another in the heavenly light?

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Impossible, he answered; for they are just men, and the commands which we impose upon them are just; there can be no doubt that every one of them will take office as a stern necessity, and not after the fashion of our present rulers of State.

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Yes, my friend, I said; and there lies the point. You must contrive for your future rulers another and a better life than that of a ruler, and then you may have a well-ordered State; for only in the State which offers this, will they rule who are truly rich, not in silver and gold, but in virtue and wisdom, which are the true blessings of life. Whereas if they go to the administration of public affairs, poor and hungering after their own private advantage, thinking that hence they are to snatch the chief good, order there can never be; for they will be fighting about office, and the civil and domestic broils which thus arise will be the ruin of the rulers themselves and of the whole State.

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Most true, he replied.

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And the only life which looks down upon the life of political ambition is that of true philosophy. Do you know of any other?

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Indeed, I do not, he said.

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And those who govern ought not to be lovers of the task? For, if they are, there will be rival lovers, and they will fight.

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No question.

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Who then are those whom we shall compel to be guardians? Surely they will be the men who are wisest about affairs of State, and by whom the State is best administered, and who at the same time have other honours and another and a better life than that of politics?

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They are the men, and I will choose them, he replied.

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And now shall we consider in what way such guardians will be produced, and how they are to be brought from darkness to light,—as some are said to have ascended from the world below to the gods?

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By all means, he replied.

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The process, I said, is not the turning over of an oyster-shell (In allusion to a game in which two parties fled or pursued according as an oyster-shell which was thrown into the air fell with the dark or light side uppermost.), but the turning round of a soul passing from a day which is little better than night to the true day of being, that is, the ascent from below, which we affirm to be true philosophy?

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Quite so.

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And should we not enquire what sort of knowledge has the power of effecting such a change?

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Certainly.

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What sort of knowledge is there which would draw the soul from becoming to being? And another consideration has just occurred to me: You will remember that our young men are to be warrior athletes?

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Yes, that was said.

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Then this new kind of knowledge must have an additional quality?

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What quality?

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Usefulness in war.

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Yes, if possible.

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There were two parts in our former scheme of education, were there not?

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Just so.

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There was gymnastic which presided over the growth and decay of the body, and may therefore be regarded as having to do with generation and corruption?

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True.

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Then that is not the knowledge which we are seeking to discover?

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No.

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But what do you say of music, which also entered to a certain extent into our former scheme?

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Music, he said, as you will remember, was the counterpart of gymnastic, and trained the guardians by the influences of habit, by harmony making them harmonious, by rhythm rhythmical, but not giving them science; and the words, whether fabulous or possibly true, had kindred elements of rhythm and harmony in them. But in music there was nothing which tended to that good which you are now seeking.

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You are most accurate, I said, in your recollection; in music there certainly was nothing of the kind. But what branch of knowledge is there, my dear Glaucon, which is of the desired nature; since all the useful arts were reckoned mean by us?

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Undoubtedly; and yet if music and gymnastic are excluded, and the arts are also excluded, what remains?

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Well, I said, there may be nothing left of our special subjects; and then we shall have to take something which is not special, but of universal application.

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What may that be?

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A something which all arts and sciences and intelligences use in common, and which every one first has to learn among the elements of education.

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What is that?

100

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The little matter of distinguishing one, two, and three—in a word, number and calculation:—do not all arts and sciences necessarily partake of them?

101

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Yes.

102

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Then the art of war partakes of them?

103

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To be sure.

104

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Then Palamedes, whenever he appears in tragedy, proves Agamemnon ridiculously unfit to be a general. Did you never remark how he declares that he had invented number, and had numbered the ships and set in array the ranks of the army at Troy; which implies that they had never been numbered before, and Agamemnon must be supposed literally to have been incapable of counting his own feet—how could he if he was ignorant of number? And if that is true, what sort of general must he have been?

105

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I should say a very strange one, if this was as you say.

106

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Can we deny that a warrior should have a knowledge of arithmetic?

107

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Certainly he should, if he is to have the smallest understanding of military tactics, or indeed, I should rather say, if he is to be a man at all.

108

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I should like to know whether you have the same notion which I have of this study?

109

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What is your notion?

110

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It appears to me to be a study of the kind which we are seeking, and which leads naturally to reflection, but never to have been rightly used; for the true use of it is simply to draw the soul towards being.

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Will you explain your meaning? he said.

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I will try, I said; and I wish you would share the enquiry with me, and say ’yes’ or ’no’ when I attempt to distinguish in my own mind what branches of knowledge have this attracting power, in order that we may have clearer proof that arithmetic is, as I suspect, one of them.

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Explain, he said.

114

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I mean to say that objects of sense are of two kinds; some of them do not invite thought because the sense is an adequate judge of them; while in the case of other objects sense is so untrustworthy that further enquiry is imperatively demanded.

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You are clearly referring, he said, to the manner in which the senses are imposed upon by distance, and by painting in light and shade.

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No, I said, that is not at all my meaning.

117

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Then what is your meaning?

118

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When speaking of uninviting objects, I mean those which do not pass from one sensation to the opposite; inviting objects are those which do; in this latter case the sense coming upon the object, whether at a distance or near, gives no more vivid idea of anything in particular than of its opposite. An illustration will make my meaning clearer:—here are three fingers—a little finger, a second finger, and a middle finger.

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Very good.

120

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You may suppose that they are seen quite close: And here comes the point.

121

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What is it?

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Each of them equally appears a finger, whether seen in the middle or at the extremity, whether white or black, or thick or thin—it makes no difference; a finger is a finger all the same. In these cases a man is not compelled to ask of thought the question what is a finger? for the sight never intimates to the mind that a finger is other than a finger.

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True.

124

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And therefore, I said, as we might expect, there is nothing here which invites or excites intelligence.

125

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There is not, he said.

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But is this equally true of the greatness and smallness of the fingers? Can sight adequately perceive them? and is no difference made by the circumstance that one of the fingers is in the middle and another at the extremity? And in like manner does the touch adequately perceive the qualities of thickness or thinness, of softness or hardness? And so of the other senses; do they give perfect intimations of such matters? Is not their mode of operation on this wise—the sense which is concerned with the quality of hardness is necessarily concerned also with the quality of softness, and only intimates to the soul that the same thing is felt to be both hard and soft?

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You are quite right, he said.

128

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And must not the soul be perplexed at this intimation which the sense gives of a hard which is also soft? What, again, is the meaning of light and heavy, if that which is light is also heavy, and that which is heavy, light?

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Yes, he said, these intimations which the soul receives are very curious and require to be explained.

130

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Yes, I said, and in these perplexities the soul naturally summons to her aid calculation and intelligence, that she may see whether the several objects announced to her are one or two.

131

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True.

132

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And if they turn out to be two, is not each of them one and different?

133

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Certainly.

134

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And if each is one, and both are two, she will conceive the two as in a state of division, for if there were undivided they could only be conceived of as one?

135

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True.

136

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The eye certainly did see both small and great, but only in a confused manner; they were not distinguished.

137

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Yes.

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Whereas the thinking mind, intending to light up the chaos, was compelled to reverse the process, and look at small and great as separate and not confused.

139

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Very true.

140

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Was not this the beginning of the enquiry ’What is great?’ and ’What is small?’

141

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Exactly so.

142

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And thus arose the distinction of the visible and the intelligible.

143

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Most true.

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This was what I meant when I spoke of impressions which invited the intellect, or the reverse—those which are simultaneous with opposite impressions, invite thought; those which are not simultaneous do not.

145

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I understand, he said, and agree with you.

146

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And to which class do unity and number belong?

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I do not know, he replied.

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Think a little and you will see that what has preceded will supply the answer; for if simple unity could be adequately perceived by the sight or by any other sense, then, as we were saying in the case of the finger, there would be nothing to attract towards being; but when there is some contradiction always present, and one is the reverse of one and involves the conception of plurality, then thought begins to be aroused within us, and the soul perplexed and wanting to arrive at a decision asks ’What is absolute unity?’ This is the way in which the study of the one has a power of drawing and converting the mind to the contemplation of true being.

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And surely, he said, this occurs notably in the case of one; for we see the same thing to be both one and infinite in multitude?

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Yes, I said; and this being true of one must be equally true of all number?

151

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Certainly.

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And all arithmetic and calculation have to do with number?

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Yes.

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And they appear to lead the mind towards truth?

155

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Yes, in a very remarkable manner.

156

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Then this is knowledge of the kind for which we are seeking, having a double use, military and philosophical; for the man of war must learn the art of number or he will not know how to array his troops, and the philosopher also, because he has to rise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being, and therefore he must be an arithmetician.

157

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That is true.

158

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And our guardian is both warrior and philosopher?

159

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Certainly.

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Then this is a kind of knowledge which legislation may fitly prescribe; and we must endeavour to persuade those who are to be the principal men of our State to go and learn arithmetic, not as amateurs, but they must carry on the study until they see the nature of numbers with the mind only; nor again, like merchants or retail-traders, with a view to buying or selling, but for the sake of their military use, and of the soul herself; and because this will be the easiest way for her to pass from becoming to truth and being.

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That is excellent, he said.

162

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Yes, I said, and now having spoken of it, I must add how charming the science is! and in how many ways it conduces to our desired end, if pursued in the spirit of a philosopher, and not of a shopkeeper!

163

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How do you mean?

164

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I mean, as I was saying, that arithmetic has a very great and elevating effect, compelling the soul to reason about abstract number, and rebelling against the introduction of visible or tangible objects into the argument. You know how steadily the masters of the art repel and ridicule any one who attempts to divide absolute unity when he is calculating, and if you divide, they multiply (Meaning either (1) that they integrate the number because they deny the possibility of fractions; or (2) that division is regarded by them as a process of multiplication, for the fractions of one continue to be units.), taking care that one shall continue one and not become lost in fractions.

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That is very true.

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Now, suppose a person were to say to them: O my friends, what are these wonderful numbers about which you are reasoning, in which, as you say, there is a unity such as you demand, and each unit is equal, invariable, indivisible,—what would they answer?

167

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They would answer, as I should conceive, that they were speaking of those numbers which can only be realized in thought.

168

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Then you see that this knowledge may be truly called necessary, necessitating as it clearly does the use of the pure intelligence in the attainment of pure truth?

169

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Yes; that is a marked characteristic of it.

170

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And have you further observed, that those who have a natural talent for calculation are generally quick at every other kind of knowledge; and even the dull, if they have had an arithmetical training, although they may derive no other advantage from it, always become much quicker than they would otherwise have been.

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Very true, he said.

172

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And indeed, you will not easily find a more difficult study, and not many as difficult.

173

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You will not.

174

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And, for all these reasons, arithmetic is a kind of knowledge in which the best natures should be trained, and which must not be given up.

175

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I agree.

176

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Let this then be made one of our subjects of education. And next, shall we enquire whether the kindred science also concerns us?

177

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You mean geometry?

178

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Exactly so.

179

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Clearly, he said, we are concerned with that part of geometry which relates to war; for in pitching a camp, or taking up a position, or closing or extending the lines of an army, or any other military manoeuvre, whether in actual battle or on a march, it will make all the difference whether a general is or is not a geometrician.

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Yes, I said, but for that purpose a very little of either geometry or calculation will be enough; the question relates rather to the greater and more advanced part of geometry—whether that tends in any degree to make more easy the vision of the idea of good; and thither, as I was saying, all things tend which compel the soul to turn her gaze towards that place, where is the full perfection of being, which she ought, by all means, to behold.

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True, he said.

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Then if geometry compels us to view being, it concerns us; if becoming only, it does not concern us?

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Yes, that is what we assert.

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Yet anybody who has the least acquaintance with geometry will not deny that such a conception of the science is in flat contradiction to the ordinary language of geometricians.

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How so?

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They have in view practice only, and are always speaking, in a narrow and ridiculous manner, of squaring and extending and applying and the like—they confuse the necessities of geometry with those of daily life; whereas knowledge is the real object of the whole science.

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Certainly, he said.

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Then must not a further admission be made?

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What admission?

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That the knowledge at which geometry aims is knowledge of the eternal, and not of aught perishing and transient.

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That, he replied, may be readily allowed, and is true.

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Then, my noble friend, geometry will draw the soul towards truth, and create the spirit of philosophy, and raise up that which is now unhappily allowed to fall down.

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Nothing will be more likely to have such an effect.

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Then nothing should be more sternly laid down than that the inhabitants of your fair city should by all means learn geometry. Moreover the science has indirect effects, which are not small.

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Of what kind? he said.

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There are the military advantages of which you spoke, I said; and in all departments of knowledge, as experience proves, any one who has studied geometry is infinitely quicker of apprehension than one who has not.

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Yes indeed, he said, there is an infinite difference between them.

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Then shall we propose this as a second branch of knowledge which our youth will study?

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Let us do so, he replied.

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And suppose we make astronomy the third—what do you say?

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I am strongly inclined to it, he said; the observation of the seasons and of months and years is as essential to the general as it is to the farmer or sailor.

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I am amused, I said, at your fear of the world, which makes you guard against the appearance of insisting upon useless studies; and I quite admit the difficulty of believing that in every man there is an eye of the soul which, when by other pursuits lost and dimmed, is by these purified and re-illumined; and is more precious far than ten thousand bodily eyes, for by it alone is truth seen. Now there are two classes of persons: one class of those who will agree with you and will take your words as a revelation; another class to whom they will be utterly unmeaning, and who will naturally deem them to be idle tales, for they see no sort of profit which is to be obtained from them. And therefore you had better decide at once with which of the two you are proposing to argue. You will very likely say with neither, and that your chief aim in carrying on the argument is your own improvement; at the same time you do not grudge to others any benefit which they may receive.

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I think that I should prefer to carry on the argument mainly on my own behalf.

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Then take a step backward, for we have gone wrong in the order of the sciences.

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What was the mistake? he said.

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After plane geometry, I said, we proceeded at once to solids in revolution, instead of taking solids in themselves; whereas after the second dimension the third, which is concerned with cubes and dimensions of depth, ought to have followed.

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That is true, Socrates; but so little seems to be known as yet about these subjects.

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Why, yes, I said, and for two reasons:—in the first place, no government patronises them; this leads to a want of energy in the pursuit of them, and they are difficult; in the second place, students cannot learn them unless they have a director. But then a director can hardly be found, and even if he could, as matters now stand, the students, who are very conceited, would not attend to him. That, however, would be otherwise if the whole State became the director of these studies and gave honour to them; then disciples would want to come, and there would be continuous and earnest search, and discoveries would be made; since even now, disregarded as they are by the world, and maimed of their fair proportions, and although none of their votaries can tell the use of them, still these studies force their way by their natural charm, and very likely, if they had the help of the State, they would some day emerge into light.

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Yes, he said, there is a remarkable charm in them. But I do not clearly understand the change in the order. First you began with a geometry of plane surfaces?

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Yes, I said.

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And you placed astronomy next, and then you made a step backward?

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Yes, and I have delayed you by my hurry; the ludicrous state of solid geometry, which, in natural order, should have followed, made me pass over this branch and go on to astronomy, or motion of solids.

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True, he said.

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Then assuming that the science now omitted would come into existence if encouraged by the State, let us go on to astronomy, which will be fourth.

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The right order, he replied. And now, Socrates, as you rebuked the vulgar manner in which I praised astronomy before, my praise shall be given in your own spirit. For every one, as I think, must see that astronomy compels the soul to look upwards and leads us from this world to another.

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Every one but myself, I said; to every one else this may be clear, but not to me.

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And what then would you say?

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I should rather say that those who elevate astronomy into philosophy appear to me to make us look downwards and not upwards.

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What do you mean? he asked.

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You, I replied, have in your mind a truly sublime conception of our knowledge of the things above. And I dare say that if a person were to throw his head back and study the fretted ceiling, you would still think that his mind was the percipient, and not his eyes. And you are very likely right, and I may be a simpleton: but, in my opinion, that knowledge only which is of being and of the unseen can make the soul look upwards, and whether a man gapes at the heavens or blinks on the ground, seeking to learn some particular of sense, I would deny that he can learn, for nothing of that sort is matter of science; his soul is looking downwards, not upwards, whether his way to knowledge is by water or by land, whether he floats, or only lies on his back.

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I acknowledge, he said, the justice of your rebuke. Still, I should like to ascertain how astronomy can be learned in any manner more conducive to that knowledge of which we are speaking?

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I will tell you, I said: The starry heaven which we behold is wrought upon a visible ground, and therefore, although the fairest and most perfect of visible things, must necessarily be deemed inferior far to the true motions of absolute swiftness and absolute slowness, which are relative to each other, and carry with them that which is contained in them, in the true number and in every true figure. Now, these are to be apprehended by reason and intelligence, but not by sight.

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True, he replied.

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The spangled heavens should be used as a pattern and with a view to that higher knowledge; their beauty is like the beauty of figures or pictures excellently wrought by the hand of Daedalus, or some other great artist, which we may chance to behold; any geometrician who saw them would appreciate the exquisiteness of their workmanship, but he would never dream of thinking that in them he could find the true equal or the true double, or the truth of any other proportion.

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No, he replied, such an idea would be ridiculous.

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And will not a true astronomer have the same feeling when he looks at the movements of the stars? Will he not think that heaven and the things in heaven are framed by the Creator of them in the most perfect manner? But he will never imagine that the proportions of night and day, or of both to the month, or of the month to the year, or of the stars to these and to one another, and any other things that are material and visible can also be eternal and subject to no deviation—that would be absurd; and it is equally absurd to take so much pains in investigating their exact truth.

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I quite agree, though I never thought of this before.

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Then, I said, in astronomy, as in geometry, we should employ problems, and let the heavens alone if we would approach the subject in the right way and so make the natural gift of reason to be of any real use.

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That, he said, is a work infinitely beyond our present astronomers.

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Yes, I said; and there are many other things which must also have a similar extension given to them, if our legislation is to be of any value. But can you tell me of any other suitable study?

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No, he said, not without thinking.

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Motion, I said, has many forms, and not one only; two of them are obvious enough even to wits no better than ours; and there are others, as I imagine, which may be left to wiser persons.

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But where are the two?

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There is a second, I said, which is the counterpart of the one already named.

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And what may that be?

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The second, I said, would seem relatively to the ears to be what the first is to the eyes; for I conceive that as the eyes are designed to look up at the stars, so are the ears to hear harmonious motions; and these are sister sciences—as the Pythagoreans say, and we, Glaucon, agree with them?

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Yes, he replied.

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But this, I said, is a laborious study, and therefore we had better go and learn of them; and they will tell us whether there are any other applications of these sciences. At the same time, we must not lose sight of our own higher object.

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What is that?

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There is a perfection which all knowledge ought to reach, and which our pupils ought also to attain, and not to fall short of, as I was saying that they did in astronomy. For in the science of harmony, as you probably know, the same thing happens. The teachers of harmony compare the sounds and consonances which are heard only, and their labour, like that of the astronomers, is in vain.

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Yes, by heaven! he said; and ’tis as good as a play to hear them talking about their condensed notes, as they call them; they put their ears close alongside of the strings like persons catching a sound from their neighbour’s wall—one set of them declaring that they distinguish an intermediate note and have found the least interval which should be the unit of measurement; the others insisting that the two sounds have passed into the same—either party setting their ears before their understanding.

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You mean, I said, those gentlemen who tease and torture the strings and rack them on the pegs of the instrument: I might carry on the metaphor and speak after their manner of the blows which the plectrum gives, and make accusations against the strings, both of backwardness and forwardness to sound; but this would be tedious, and therefore I will only say that these are not the men, and that I am referring to the Pythagoreans, of whom I was just now proposing to enquire about harmony. For they too are in error, like the astronomers; they investigate the numbers of the harmonies which are heard, but they never attain to problems—that is to say, they never reach the natural harmonies of number, or reflect why some numbers are harmonious and others not.

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That, he said, is a thing of more than mortal knowledge.

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A thing, I replied, which I would rather call useful; that is, if sought after with a view to the beautiful and good; but if pursued in any other spirit, useless.

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Very true, he said.

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Now, when all these studies reach the point of inter-communion and connection with one another, and come to be considered in their mutual affinities, then, I think, but not till then, will the pursuit of them have a value for our objects; otherwise there is no profit in them.

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I suspect so; but you are speaking, Socrates, of a vast work.

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What do you mean? I said; the prelude or what? Do you not know that all this is but the prelude to the actual strain which we have to learn? For you surely would not regard the skilled mathematician as a dialectician?

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Assuredly not, he said; I have hardly ever known a mathematician who was capable of reasoning.

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But do you imagine that men who are unable to give and take a reason will have the knowledge which we require of them?

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Neither can this be supposed.

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And so, Glaucon, I said, we have at last arrived at the hymn of dialectic. This is that strain which is of the intellect only, but which the faculty of sight will nevertheless be found to imitate; for sight, as you may remember, was imagined by us after a while to behold the real animals and stars, and last of all the sun himself. And so with dialectic; when a person starts on the discovery of the absolute by the light of reason only, and without any assistance of sense, and perseveres until by pure intelligence he arrives at the perception of the absolute good, he at last finds himself at the end of the intellectual world, as in the case of sight at the end of the visible.

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Exactly, he said.

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Then this is the progress which you call dialectic?

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True.

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But the release of the prisoners from chains, and their translation from the shadows to the images and to the light, and the ascent from the underground den to the sun, while in his presence they are vainly trying to look on animals and plants and the light of the sun, but are able to perceive even with their weak eyes the images in the water (which are divine), and are the shadows of true existence (not shadows of images cast by a light of fire, which compared with the sun is only an image)—this power of elevating the highest principle in the soul to the contemplation of that which is best in existence, with which we may compare the raising of that faculty which is the very light of the body to the sight of that which is brightest in the material and visible world—this power is given, as I was saying, by all that study and pursuit of the arts which has been described.

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I agree in what you are saying, he replied, which may be hard to believe, yet, from another point of view, is harder still to deny. This, however, is not a theme to be treated of in passing only, but will have to be discussed again and again. And so, whether our conclusion be true or false, let us assume all this, and proceed at once from the prelude or preamble to the chief strain (A play upon the Greek word, which means both ’law’ and ’strain.’), and describe that in like manner. Say, then, what is the nature and what are the divisions of dialectic, and what are the paths which lead thither; for these paths will also lead to our final rest.

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Dear Glaucon, I said, you will not be able to follow me here, though I would do my best, and you should behold not an image only but the absolute truth, according to my notion. Whether what I told you would or would not have been a reality I cannot venture to say; but you would have seen something like reality; of that I am confident.

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Doubtless, he replied.

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But I must also remind you, that the power of dialectic alone can reveal this, and only to one who is a disciple of the previous sciences.

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Of that assertion you may be as confident as of the last.

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And assuredly no one will argue that there is any other method of comprehending by any regular process all true existence or of ascertaining what each thing is in its own nature; for the arts in general are concerned with the desires or opinions of men, or are cultivated with a view to production and construction, or for the preservation of such productions and constructions; and as to the mathematical sciences which, as we were saying, have some apprehension of true being—geometry and the like—they only dream about being, but never can they behold the waking reality so long as they leave the hypotheses which they use unexamined, and are unable to give an account of them. For when a man knows not his own first principle, and when the conclusion and intermediate steps are also constructed out of he knows not what, how can he imagine that such a fabric of convention can ever become science?

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Impossible, he said.

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Then dialectic, and dialectic alone, goes directly to the first principle and is the only science which does away with hypotheses in order to make her ground secure; the eye of the soul, which is literally buried in an outlandish slough, is by her gentle aid lifted upwards; and she uses as handmaids and helpers in the work of conversion, the sciences which we have been discussing. Custom terms them sciences, but they ought to have some other name, implying greater clearness than opinion and less clearness than science: and this, in our previous sketch, was called understanding. But why should we dispute about names when we have realities of such importance to consider?

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Why indeed, he said, when any name will do which expresses the thought of the mind with clearness?

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At any rate, we are satisfied, as before, to have four divisions; two for intellect and two for opinion, and to call the first division science, the second understanding, the third belief, and the fourth perception of shadows, opinion being concerned with becoming, and intellect with being; and so to make a proportion:—

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As being is to becoming, so is pure intellect to opinion. And as intellect is to opinion, so is science to belief, and understanding to the perception of shadows.

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But let us defer the further correlation and subdivision of the subjects of opinion and of intellect, for it will be a long enquiry, many times longer than this has been.

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As far as I understand, he said, I agree.

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And do you also agree, I said, in describing the dialectician as one who attains a conception of the essence of each thing? And he who does not possess and is therefore unable to impart this conception, in whatever degree he fails, may in that degree also be said to fail in intelligence? Will you admit so much?

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Yes, he said; how can I deny it?

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And you would say the same of the conception of the good? Until the person is able to abstract and define rationally the idea of good, and unless he can run the gauntlet of all objections, and is ready to disprove them, not by appeals to opinion, but to absolute truth, never faltering at any step of the argument—unless he can do all this, you would say that he knows neither the idea of good nor any other good; he apprehends only a shadow, if anything at all, which is given by opinion and not by science;—dreaming and slumbering in this life, before he is well awake here, he arrives at the world below, and has his final quietus.

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In all that I should most certainly agree with you.

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And surely you would not have the children of your ideal State, whom you are nurturing and educating—if the ideal ever becomes a reality—you would not allow the future rulers to be like posts (Literally ’lines,’ probably the starting-point of a race-course.), having no reason in them, and yet to be set in authority over the highest matters?

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Certainly not.

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Then you will make a law that they shall have such an education as will enable them to attain the greatest skill in asking and answering questions?

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Yes, he said, you and I together will make it.

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Dialectic, then, as you will agree, is the coping-stone of the sciences, and is set over them; no other science can be placed higher—the nature of knowledge can no further go?

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I agree, he said.

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But to whom we are to assign these studies, and in what way they are to be assigned, are questions which remain to be considered.

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Yes, clearly.

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You remember, I said, how the rulers were chosen before?

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Certainly, he said.

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The same natures must still be chosen, and the preference again given to the surest and the bravest, and, if possible, to the fairest; and, having noble and generous tempers, they should also have the natural gifts which will facilitate their education.

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And what are these?

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Such gifts as keenness and ready powers of acquisition; for the mind more often faints from the severity of study than from the severity of gymnastics: the toil is more entirely the mind’s own, and is not shared with the body.

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Very true, he replied.

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Further, he of whom we are in search should have a good memory, and be an unwearied solid man who is a lover of labour in any line; or he will never be able to endure the great amount of bodily exercise and to go through all the intellectual discipline and study which we require of him.

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Certainly, he said; he must have natural gifts.

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The mistake at present is, that those who study philosophy have no vocation, and this, as I was before saying, is the reason why she has fallen into disrepute: her true sons should take her by the hand and not bastards.

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What do you mean?

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In the first place, her votary should not have a lame or halting industry—I mean, that he should not be half industrious and half idle: as, for example, when a man is a lover of gymnastic and hunting, and all other bodily exercises, but a hater rather than a lover of the labour of learning or listening or enquiring. Or the occupation to which he devotes himself may be of an opposite kind, and he may have the other sort of lameness.

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Certainly, he said.

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And as to truth, I said, is not a soul equally to be deemed halt and lame which hates voluntary falsehood and is extremely indignant at herself and others when they tell lies, but is patient of involuntary falsehood, and does not mind wallowing like a swinish beast in the mire of ignorance, and has no shame at being detected?

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To be sure.

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And, again, in respect of temperance, courage, magnificence, and every other virtue, should we not carefully distinguish between the true son and the bastard? for where there is no discernment of such qualities states and individuals unconsciously err; and the state makes a ruler, and the individual a friend, of one who, being defective in some part of virtue, is in a figure lame or a bastard.

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That is very true, he said.

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All these things, then, will have to be carefully considered by us; and if only those whom we introduce to this vast system of education and training are sound in body and mind, justice herself will have nothing to say against us, and we shall be the saviours of the constitution and of the State; but, if our pupils are men of another stamp, the reverse will happen, and we shall pour a still greater flood of ridicule on philosophy than she has to endure at present.

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That would not be creditable.

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Certainly not, I said; and yet perhaps, in thus turning jest into earnest I am equally ridiculous.

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In what respect?

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I had forgotten, I said, that we were not serious, and spoke with too much excitement. For when I saw philosophy so undeservedly trampled under foot of men I could not help feeling a sort of indignation at the authors of her disgrace: and my anger made me too vehement.

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Indeed! I was listening, and did not think so.

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But I, who am the speaker, felt that I was. And now let me remind you that, although in our former selection we chose old men, we must not do so in this. Solon was under a delusion when he said that a man when he grows old may learn many things—for he can no more learn much than he can run much; youth is the time for any extraordinary toil.

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Of course.

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And, therefore, calculation and geometry and all the other elements of instruction, which are a preparation for dialectic, should be presented to the mind in childhood; not, however, under any notion of forcing our system of education.

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Why not?

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Because a freeman ought not to be a slave in the acquisition of knowledge of any kind. Bodily exercise, when compulsory, does no harm to the body; but knowledge which is acquired under compulsion obtains no hold on the mind.

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Very true.

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Then, my good friend, I said, do not use compulsion, but let early education be a sort of amusement; you will then be better able to find out the natural bent.

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That is a very rational notion, he said.

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Do you remember that the children, too, were to be taken to see the battle on horseback; and that if there were no danger they were to be brought close up and, like young hounds, have a taste of blood given them?

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Yes, I remember.

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The same practice may be followed, I said, in all these things—labours, lessons, dangers—and he who is most at home in all of them ought to be enrolled in a select number.

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At what age?

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At the age when the necessary gymnastics are over: the period whether of two or three years which passes in this sort of training is useless for any other purpose; for sleep and exercise are unpropitious to learning; and the trial of who is first in gymnastic exercises is one of the most important tests to which our youth are subjected.

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Certainly, he replied.

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After that time those who are selected from the class of twenty years old will be promoted to higher honour, and the sciences which they learned without any order in their early education will now be brought together, and they will be able to see the natural relationship of them to one another and to true being.

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Yes, he said, that is the only kind of knowledge which takes lasting root.

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Yes, I said; and the capacity for such knowledge is the great criterion of dialectical talent: the comprehensive mind is always the dialectical.

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I agree with you, he said.

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These, I said, are the points which you must consider; and those who have most of this comprehension, and who are most steadfast in their learning, and in their military and other appointed duties, when they have arrived at the age of thirty have to be chosen by you out of the select class, and elevated to higher honour; and you will have to prove them by the help of dialectic, in order to learn which of them is able to give up the use of sight and the other senses, and in company with truth to attain absolute being: And here, my friend, great caution is required.

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Why great caution?

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Do you not remark, I said, how great is the evil which dialectic has introduced?

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What evil? he said.

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The students of the art are filled with lawlessness.

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Quite true, he said.

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Do you think that there is anything so very unnatural or inexcusable in their case? or will you make allowance for them?

329

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In what way make allowance?

330

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I want you, I said, by way of parallel, to imagine a supposititious son who is brought up in great wealth; he is one of a great and numerous family, and has many flatterers. When he grows up to manhood, he learns that his alleged are not his real parents; but who the real are he is unable to discover. Can you guess how he will be likely to behave towards his flatterers and his supposed parents, first of all during the period when he is ignorant of the false relation, and then again when he knows? Or shall I guess for you?

331

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If you please.

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Then I should say, that while he is ignorant of the truth he will be likely to honour his father and his mother and his supposed relations more than the flatterers; he will be less inclined to neglect them when in need, or to do or say anything against them; and he will be less willing to disobey them in any important matter.

333

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He will.

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But when he has made the discovery, I should imagine that he would diminish his honour and regard for them, and would become more devoted to the flatterers; their influence over him would greatly increase; he would now live after their ways, and openly associate with them, and, unless he were of an unusually good disposition, he would trouble himself no more about his supposed parents or other relations.

335

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Well, all that is very probable. But how is the image applicable to the disciples of philosophy?

336

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In this way: you know that there are certain principles about justice and honour, which were taught us in childhood, and under their parental authority we have been brought up, obeying and honouring them.

337

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That is true.

338

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There are also opposite maxims and habits of pleasure which flatter and attract the soul, but do not influence those of us who have any sense of right, and they continue to obey and honour the maxims of their fathers.

339

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True.

340

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Now, when a man is in this state, and the questioning spirit asks what is fair or honourable, and he answers as the legislator has taught him, and then arguments many and diverse refute his words, until he is driven into believing that nothing is honourable any more than dishonourable, or just and good any more than the reverse, and so of all the notions which he most valued, do you think that he will still honour and obey them as before?

341

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Impossible.

342

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And when he ceases to think them honourable and natural as heretofore, and he fails to discover the true, can he be expected to pursue any life other than that which flatters his desires?

343

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He cannot.

344

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And from being a keeper of the law he is converted into a breaker of it?

345

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Unquestionably.

346

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Now all this is very natural in students of philosophy such as I have described, and also, as I was just now saying, most excusable.

347

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Yes, he said; and, I may add, pitiable.

348

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Therefore, that your feelings may not be moved to pity about our citizens who are now thirty years of age, every care must be taken in introducing them to dialectic.

349

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Certainly.

350

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There is a danger lest they should taste the dear delight too early; for youngsters, as you may have observed, when they first get the taste in their mouths, argue for amusement, and are always contradicting and refuting others in imitation of those who refute them; like puppy-dogs, they rejoice in pulling and tearing at all who come near them.

351

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Yes, he said, there is nothing which they like better.

352

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And when they have made many conquests and received defeats at the hands of many, they violently and speedily get into a way of not believing anything which they believed before, and hence, not only they, but philosophy and all that relates to it is apt to have a bad name with the rest of the world.

353

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Too true, he said.

354

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But when a man begins to get older, he will no longer be guilty of such insanity; he will imitate the dialectician who is seeking for truth, and not the eristic, who is contradicting for the sake of amusement; and the greater moderation of his character will increase instead of diminishing the honour of the pursuit.

355

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Very true, he said.

356

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And did we not make special provision for this, when we said that the disciples of philosophy were to be orderly and steadfast, not, as now, any chance aspirant or intruder?

357

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Very true.

358

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Suppose, I said, the study of philosophy to take the place of gymnastics and to be continued diligently and earnestly and exclusively for twice the number of years which were passed in bodily exercise—will that be enough?

359

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Would you say six or four years? he asked.

360

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Say five years, I replied; at the end of the time they must be sent down again into the den and compelled to hold any military or other office which young men are qualified to hold: in this way they will get their experience of life, and there will be an opportunity of trying whether, when they are drawn all manner of ways by temptation, they will stand firm or flinch.

361

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And how long is this stage of their lives to last?

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Fifteen years, I answered; and when they have reached fifty years of age, then let those who still survive and have distinguished themselves in every action of their lives and in every branch of knowledge come at last to their consummation: the time has now arrived at which they must raise the eye of the soul to the universal light which lightens all things, and behold the absolute good; for that is the pattern according to which they are to order the State and the lives of individuals, and the remainder of their own lives also; making philosophy their chief pursuit, but, when their turn comes, toiling also at politics and ruling for the public good, not as though they were performing some heroic action, but simply as a matter of duty; and when they have brought up in each generation others like themselves and left them in their place to be governors of the State, then they will depart to the Islands of the Blest and dwell there; and the city will give them public memorials and sacrifices and honour them, if the Pythian oracle consent, as demigods, but if not, as in any case blessed and divine.

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You are a sculptor, Socrates, and have made statues of our governors faultless in beauty.

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Yes, I said, Glaucon, and of our governesses too; for you must not suppose that what I have been saying applies to men only and not to women as far as their natures can go.

365

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There you are right, he said, since we have made them to share in all things like the men.

366

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Well, I said, and you would agree (would you not?) that what has been said about the State and the government is not a mere dream, and although difficult not impossible, but only possible in the way which has been supposed; that is to say, when the true philosopher kings are born in a State, one or more of them, despising the honours of this present world which they deem mean and worthless, esteeming above all things right and the honour that springs from right, and regarding justice as the greatest and most necessary of all things, whose ministers they are, and whose principles will be exalted by them when they set in order their own city?

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How will they proceed?

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They will begin by sending out into the country all the inhabitants of the city who are more than ten years old, and will take possession of their children, who will be unaffected by the habits of their parents; these they will train in their own habits and laws, I mean in the laws which we have given them: and in this way the State and constitution of which we were speaking will soonest and most easily attain happiness, and the nation which has such a constitution will gain most.

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Yes, that will be the best way. And I think, Socrates, that you have very well described how, if ever, such a constitution might come into being.

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Enough then of the perfect State, and of the man who bears its image—there is no difficulty in seeing how we shall describe him.

371

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There is no difficulty, he replied; and I agree with you in thinking that nothing more need be said.

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