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苏菲的世界|Sophie’s World

神话|The Myths

属类： 双语小说 【分类】魔幻小说 -[作者: 乔斯坦·贾德] 阅读：[45919]
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……善与恶之间脆弱的平衡……

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第二天早上，苏菲没有接到任何信。一整天在学校里，她觉得如坐针毡，无聊极了。下课时，她特别小心，对乔安比平日更好。放学回家途中，她们讨论相偕露营的计划，只等树林里的地变干时便可以成行。

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好不容易终于捱到了开信箱的时刻。首先她拆开一封盖着墨西哥邮戳的信，是爸爸写来的。信上说他非常想家，还有他生平第一遭在棋赛中打败了大副。除此之外，他也几乎看完了他在寒假过后带上船的一批书。之后，苏菲又看到了一个写着她名字的棕色信封。把书包和其他邮件放进屋里后，她便跑进密洞中，把信封内刚打开的信纸抽出来，开始看着：

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神话的世界观

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嗨，苏菲！今天要讲的东西很多，因此我们就马上开始吧。

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所谓哲学，我们指的是耶稣基督降生前六百年左右，在希腊演进的一种崭新的思考方式。在那以前，人们在各种宗教中找到了他们心中问题的答案。这些宗教上的解释透过神话的形式代代流传下来。所谓神话就是有关诸神的故事，其目的在解释为何生命是这一番面貌。

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数千年来，世界各地有许多企图解答哲学性问题的神话故事。

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希腊哲学家则想证明这些解释是不可信赖的。

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为了要了解古代哲学家的想法，我们必须先了解神话中显现的世界是何种面貌。我们可以拿一些北欧神话来做例子。

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你也许曾经听过索尔(Thor)与他的铁锤的故事。在基督教传入挪威之前，人们相信索尔时常乘着一辆由两只山羊拉着的战车横越天空。他一挥动斧头便产生闪电与雷声。挪威文中的“雷”(Thor—don)字意指索尔的怒吼。在瑞典文中，“雷”字(aska)原来写成as—aka，意指神(在天上)出游。当天空雷电交加时，便会下雨，而雨对北欧农民是很重要的。

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因此，索尔又被尊为象征肥沃、富饶的神。

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因此神话中对雨的解释便是：索尔挥动锤子时，就会下雨。而一旦下雨，田里的玉米便会开始发芽、茁长。

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田里的植物如何能够生长并结出果实？这问题令人不解，不过显然与雨水有关。更重要的是，每一个人都相信雨水与索尔有关，因此他便成了古代北欧最重要的神祗之一。

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索尔之所以受到重视另外有一个原因，而这个原因与整个世界秩序有关。

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北欧人相信人类居住的这部分世界是一个岛屿，时常面临来自外界的危险。他们称此地为“米德加德”(Midgard)，就是“中央王国”的意思。在这个中央王国内，有一个地方名叫“阿斯加德”(Asgard)，乃是诸神的领地。

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中央王国外面有一个叫做“乌特加德”(Utgard)的王国，是狡猾的巨人居住的地方。这些巨人运用各种诡计想要摧毁这个世界。

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类似这样的邪恶怪物经常被称为“混乱之力”。事实上，不仅挪威神话，几平所有其他文化都发现善与恶这两种势力之间存在着一种不稳定的平衡。

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巨人们摧毁“中央王国”的方法之一就是绑架象征肥沃、多产的女神芙瑞雅(Freyja)。如果他们得逞，田野里将无法长出作物，妇女也将生不出小孩。因此，非得有人来制住这些巨人不可。

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这时就要仰赖索尔了。他的铁锤不仅能使天空下雨，也是对抗危险的混乱之力的重要武器。这支锤子几乎给了他无边的法力，他可以用它掷杀巨人，而且毋需担心把它弄丢，因为它总是会自动回到他身边，就像回力球一样。

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这就是神话中对于大自然如何维持平衡、为何善与恶之间永远相互对抗等问题的解释，而哲学家们拒绝接受这种解释。

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然而，这并不仅仅是解释的问题。

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当干旱、瘟疫等灾害发生时，凡人不能光是呆坐在那儿，等着神明来解救。他们必须在这场对抗邪恶的战争中出力，而他们出力的方法则是举行种种宗教仪式。

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在古代的北欧，意义最重大的宗教仪式乃是献祭。对神明献祭可以增强神明的法力。举个例子，凡人必须以祭品供奉神明，以给予他们战胜混乱之力的力量。其方法是宰杀牲畜，祭拜神明。古代北欧人祭祀索尔时通常以山羊为祭品，祭拜欧丁(Odin)时有时还会以人为祭品。

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北欧国家最著名的神话来自冰岛一首名为《史莱慕之诗》(TheLayofThrym)的诗。诗中叙述有一天索尔醒来，发现他的锤子不见了，气得双手发抖，吹胡子瞪眼睛。于是他带着侍僮洛奇去拜访芙瑞雅，问她是否可以将翅膀借他，好让洛奇可以飞到巨人所住的“约腾海”(Jotunheim)，以查探那些巨人是否偷了索尔的锤子。

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洛奇到了约腾海后，见到了巨人之王史莱慕。后者得意地宣称他已将锤子藏在地下七里格的地方，并说除非诸神将芙瑞雅嫁给他，否则他不会归还锤子。

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苏菲，你了解吗？这些善良的神明突然间面临了一个全面的人质危机。巨人们夺走了诸神最有力的防卫武器，这是令人完全无法忍受的情况。只要巨人们拥有索尔的锤子，他们便能够百分之百控制诸神与凡人的世界。他们要求用芙瑞雅来交换锤子的行为也令人无法接受。如果诸神被迫放弃芙瑞雅这位保护天下生灵的丰饶女神，则田野上将看不到绿草，所有的神明与凡人也都将死去。

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这真是令人左右为难的困境。假如你能想象一群恐怖分子扬言要在伦敦或巴黎的市中心引爆一枚核子炸弹，除非他们达到他们所提的可怕要求，你马上就可以了解这个情况的严重性了。

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据说，洛奇回到阿斯加德后，就叫芙瑞雅穿上她的新娘礼服，准备嫁给巨人之王。(呜呼哀哉！）芙瑞雅非常生气。她说，如果她答应嫁给一个巨人，人们准会以为她想男人想疯了。

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这时候，一个名叫海姆达尔(Heimdall)的天神想出了一个很聪明的办法。他建议索尔扮成新娘，把头发梳起来，在衣服内垫两块石头，装成女人。可想而知，索尔当然很不情愿，不过他终于不得不承认，如果他要取回铁锤，这是唯一的办法。

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于是，索尔穿上了新娘礼服，洛奇则扮成伴娘。洛奇说：“现在，就让我们这两个女人前往约腾海吧！”以现代话来说，索尔和洛奇是天神中的反恐怖特勤小组。他们男扮女装，任务是渗透巨人的根据地，夺回索尔的锤子。他们到达约腾海后，巨人们开始筹备婚宴。

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然而在筵席中，新娘(就是索尔)一口气吃下一整只牛和八条鲑鱼，并且痛饮了三桶啤酒，把史莱慕吓了一大跳。这个“突击小组”的真实身分几乎就要曝光了。幸好，洛奇及时辩称芙瑞雅是因为期盼到约腾海来，整整一个星期都没有吃饭，才化解了这场危机。

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史莱慕掀开新娘面纱要亲吻新娘时，吃惊地看到一双红彤彤的眼睛。此时洛奇再度出面解围。他说，新娘是因为在婚礼前太过兴奋，才整整一个礼拜都没有合眼。于是，史莱慕使命手下将锤子取来以便在进行婚礼时放在新娘的怀中。

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据说，索尔拿到锤子时，忍不住放声大笑。他先用锤子击杀了史莱慕，然后便将巨人们以及他们所有的亲族杀个精光。就这样，这个可怕的人质事件终于有了一个美满结局。索尔这个天神世界中的蝙蝠侠或OO7又再一次击败了恶势力。

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这个神话故事到此结束。然而，其中真正的意义究竟是什么？这不仅是一个有娱乐效果的故事，同时也具有说明的作用。我们也许可以做如下的解释：当旱灾发生时，人们便思索天空之所以不下雨的原因，是因为巨人们偷了索尔的锤予吗？也许这则神话之缘起，是人们试图解释一年中季节更替的现象：冬天时大自然死亡，是因为索尔的铁锤被偷到约腾海，但是到春天时索尔便将它取回。如此这般，神话的作用便是为人们不了解的事物寻求一个解释。

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然而，一则神话可不只是一个解释而已。人们同时也进行与神话有关的宗教仪式。我们可以想象当时的人在荒旱或作物歉收时，如何依照神话情节来搬演一出戏剧。也许村里一名男子会打扮成新娘，用石块绑在胸部，以便从巨人那儿偷回铁锤。人们这样做的目的在采取若干行动以促使下雨，好让田地里长出作物来。

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除此之外，世界其他各地也有许许多多如何将“季节的神话”编成戏剧，以加速季节更替的例子。

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到目前为止，我们只对古代北欧的神话世界有一个粗浅的印象。事实上，关于索尔与欧丁、芙瑞耶(Freyr)、芙瑞雅、霍德尔(Hoder)、波尔德(Balder)与其他多位天神，还有数不清的神话故事。这类神话式的观念遍布全球，直到哲学家们开始提出疑问为止。

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当世界上最早的哲学开始发展之际，希腊人也有一套表达他们世界观的神话。这些有关他们的天神的故事乃是数百年来世代流传下来的，这些神包括主神宙斯、太阳神阿波罗、主神之妻希拉，与司智慧、艺术、学问、战争等的女神雅典娜、酒神戴奥尼索斯、医术之神艾斯克里皮雅斯、大力士海瑞克里斯与海菲思特斯等等。

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公元前七百年左右，有一大部分希腊神话被荷马与贺西欧德(Hesiod)以文字记录下来。至此情况大不相同，因为神话既然以文字的形式存在，也就可以加以讨论了。

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于是，最早的希腊哲学家对于荷马的神话提出批评，理由是神话里的天神与人类太过相似了。他们与人一样自大、狡诈。这是破天荒第一遭有人说神话只不过是人们想象出来的。

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批评者当中有一位名叫赞诺芬尼司(Xenophanes)的哲学家，生于公元前57O年左右。他指出，人类按照自己的形象创造出这些天神，认为他们也是由父母所生，并像凡人一样有身体、穿衣服，也有语言。问题是，衣索比亚人认为天神是扁鼻子的黑人，史瑞思(巴尔干半岛东部的古国)人则认为神有金发蓝眼。假使牛、马、狮子会画图，一定也会把天神画成牛、马、狮子的模样。

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在这段期间，希腊人在希腊本土与意大利南部、小亚细亚等希腊殖民地建立了许多城市。在这些城市中，所有的劳力工作都由奴隶担任，因此市民有充分的闲暇，可以将所有时间都投注在政治与文化上。

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在这样的城市环境中，人的思考方式开始变得与以前大不相同。任何人都可以发言质疑社会的组成方式，也可毋需借助古代神话而提出一些哲学性的问题。

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我们称这样的现象为“从神话的思考模式发展到以经验与理性为基础的思考模式”。早期希腊哲学家的目标乃是为大自然的变化寻找自然的——而非超自然的——解释。

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苏菲继续在偌大的园子里信步走着。她试着忘记她在学校——尤其是在科学课上——学到的东西。假使她生长在这花园中，对于大自然一无所知，那么她对春天会有什么感觉呢？她会不会试着为突然下雨的现象找出某种解释？她会不会编造出某种神话来解释雪到哪儿去了，及为何太阳会升起？会的，她一定会的。这是毫无疑问的。她开始编故事：邪恶的穆瑞耶特将美丽的奚琪塔公主囚禁在寒冷的牢房中，于是冬天遂以它冰冷的手掌攫住了大地。然而有一天早上，勇敢的布拉瓦托王子来到这里，将她救出。奚琪塔高兴得在草原上跳舞，并唱起一首她在湿冷的牢房中所作的曲子。大地与树木都受到感动，以至于雪全都化成了眼泪。后来，太阳出来，把所有的眼泪都晒干了。鸟儿们模仿奚琪塔的歌声鸣唱着。当美丽的公主将她金黄色的长发放下来时，几绺发丝落到地上，化为田野中的百合花。

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苏菲很喜欢自己编的美丽故事。如果她不知道其他有关季节变换的解释，她一定会相信这个自己编的故事。

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她明白人们总是想为大自然的变迁寻求解释。这就是他们何以在科学还没有产生之前会编造出那些神话故事的原因。

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... a precarious balance between the forces of good and evil 

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There was no letter for Sophie the next morning. All through the interminable day at school she was bored stiff. She took care to be extra nice to Joanna during the breaks. On the way home they talked about going camping as soon as the woods were dry enough.

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After what seemed an eternity she was once again at the mailbox. First she opened a letter postmarked in Mexico. It was from her father. He wrote about how much he was longing for home and how for the first time he had managed to beat the Chief Officer at chess. Apart from that he had almost finished the pile of books he had brought aboard with him after his winter leave.

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And then, there it was--a brown envelope with her name on it! Leaving her schoolbag and the rest of the mail in the house, Sophie ran to the den . She pulled out the new typewritten pages and began to read: THE MYTHOLOGICAL WORLD PICTURE Hello there, Sophie! We have a lot to do, so we’ll get started without delay.

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By philosophy we mean the completely new way of thinking that evolved in Greece about six hundred years before the birth of Christ. Until that time people had found answers to all their questions in various religions. These religious explanations were handed down from generation to generation in the form of myths. A myth is a story about the gods which sets out to explain why life is as it is.

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Over the millennia a wild profusion of mythological explanations of philosophical questions spread across the world. The Greek philosophers attempted to prove that these explanations were not to be trusted.

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In order to understand how the early philosophers thought, we have to understand what it was like to have a mythological picture of the world. We can take some Nordic myths as examples. (There is no need to carry coals to Newcastle.)

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You have probably heard of Thor and his hammer. Before Christianity came to Norway, people believed that Thor rode across the sky in a chariot drawn by two goats. When he swung his hammer it made thunder and lightning. The word "thunder" in Norwegian--"Thor-d0n"--means Thor’s roar. In Swedish, the word for thunder is "aska," originally "as-aka," which means "god’s journey" over the heavens.

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When there is thunder and lightning there is also rain, which was vital to the Viking farmers. So Thor was worshipped as the god of fertility.

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The mythological explanation for rain was therefore that Thor was swinging his hammer. And when it rained the corn germinated and thrived in the fields.

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How the plants of the field could grow and yield crops was not understood. But it was clearly somehow connected with the rain. And since everybody believed that the rain had something to do with Thor, he was one of the most important of the Norse gods.

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There was another reason why Thor was important, a reason related to the entire world order.

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The Vikings believed that the inhabited world was an island under constant threat from outside dangers. They called this part of the world Midgard, which means the kingdom in the middle. Within Midgard lay Asgard, the domain of the gods.

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Outside Midgard was the kingdom of Utgard, the domain of the treacherous giants, who resorted to all kinds of cunning tricks to try and destroy the world. Evil monsters like these are often referred to as the "forces of chaos ." Not only in Norse mythology but in almost all other cultures, people found that there was a precarious balance between the forces of good and evil.

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One of the ways in which the giants could destroy Midgard was by abducting Freyja, the goddess of fertility. If they could do this, nothing would grow in the fields and the women would no longer have children. So it was vital to hold these giants in check.

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Thor was a central figure in this battle with the giants. His hammer could do more than make rain; it was a key weapon in the struggle against the dangerous forces of chaos. It gave him almost unlimited power. For example, he could hurl it at the giants and slay them. And he never had to worry about losing it because it always came back to him, just like a boomerang.

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This was the mythological explanation for how the balance of nature was maintained and why there was a constant struggle between good and evil. And this was precisely the kind of explanation that the philosophers rejected.

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But it was not a question of explanations alone.

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Mortals could not just sit idly by and wait for the gods to intervene while catastrophes such as drought or plague loomed . They had to act for themselves in the struggle against evil. This they did by performing various religious ceremonies, or rites .

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The most significant religious ceremony in Norse times was the offering. Making an offering to a god had the effect of increasing that god’s power. For example, mortals had to make offerings to the gods to give them the strength to conquer the forces of chaos. They could do this by sacrificing an animal to the god. The offering to Thor was usually a goat. Offerings to Odin sometimes took the form of human sacrifices.

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The myth that is best known in the Nordic countries comes from the Eddie poem "The Lay of Thrym." It tells how Thor, rising from sleep, finds that his hammer is gone. This makes him so angry that his hands tremble and his beard shakes. Accompanied by his henchman Loki he goes to Freyja to ask if Loki may borrow her wings so that he can fly to Jotunheim, the land of the giants, and find out if they are the ones who have stolen Thor’s hammer.

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At Jotunheim Loki meets Thrym, the king of the giants, who sure enough begins to boast that he has hidden the hammer seven leagues under the earth. And he adds that the gods will not get the hammer back until Thrym is given Freyja as his bride.

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Can you picture it, Sophie? Suddenly the good gods find themselves in the midst of a full-blown hostage incident. The giants have seized the gods’ most vital defensive weapon. This is an utterly unacceptable situation. As long as the giants have Thor’s hammer, they have total control over the world of gods and mortals. In exchange for the hammer they are demanding Freyja. But this is equally unacceptable. If the gods have to give up their goddess of fertility--she who protects all life--the grass will disappear from the fields and all gods and mortals will die. The situation is deadlocked .

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Loki returns to Asgard, so the myth goes, and tells Freyja to put on her wedding attire for she is (alas!) to wed the king of the giants. Freyja is furious, and says people will think she is absolutely man-crazy if she agrees to marry a giant.

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Then the god Heimdall has an idea. He suggests that Thor dress up as a bride. With his hair up and two stones under his tunic he will look like a woman. Understandably, Thor is not wildly enthusiastic about the idea, but he finally accepts that this is the only way he will ever get his hammer back.

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So Thor allows himself to be attired in bridal costume, with Loki as his bridesmaid.

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To put it in present-day terms, Thor and Loki are the gods’ "anti-terrorist squad ." Disguised as women, their mission is to breach the giants’ stronghold and recapture Thor’s hammer.

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When the gods arrive at Jotunheim, the giants begin to prepare the wedding feast. But during the feast, the bride--Thor, that is--devours an entire ox and eight salmon . He also drinks three barrels of beer. This astonishes Thrym. The true identity of the "commandos" is very nearly revealed. But Loki manages to avert the danger by explaining that Freyja has been looking forward to coming to jotunheim so much that she has not eaten for a week.

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When Thrym lifts the bridal veil to kiss the bride, he is startled to find himself looking into Thor’s burning eyes. Once again Loki saves the situation by explaining that the bride has not slept for a week because she is so excited about the wedding. At this, Thrym commands that the hammer be brought forth and laid in the bride’s lap during the wedding ceremony.

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Thor roars with laughter when he is given the hammer. First he kills Thrym with it, and then he wipes out the giants and all their kin . And thus the gruesome hostage affair has a happy ending. Thor--the Batman or James Bond of the gods--has once again conquered the forces of evil.

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So much for the myth itself, Sophie. But what is the real meaning behind it? It wasn’t made up just for entertainment. The myth also tries to explain something. Here is one possible interpretation :

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When a drought occurred, people sought an explanation of why there was no rain. Could it be that the giants had stolen Thor’s hammer?

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Perhaps the myth was an attempt to explain the changing seasons of the year: in the winter Nature dies because Thor’s hammer is in jotunheim. But in the spring he succeeds in winning it back. So the myth tried to give people an explanation for something they could not understand.

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But a myth was not only an explanation. People also carried out religious ceremonies related to the myths. We can imagine how people’s response to drought or crop failure would be to enact a drama about the events in the myth. Perhaps a man from the village would dress up as a bride--with stones for breasts--in order to steal the hammer back from the giants. By doing this, people were taking some action to make it rain so the crops would grow in their fields.

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There are a great many examples from other parts of the world of the way people dramatized their myths of the seasons in order to speed up the processes of nature.

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So far we have only taken a brief glimpse at the world of Norse mythology. But there were countless myths about Thor and Odin, Freyr and Frey a, Hoder and Balder and many other gods. Mythologica notions of this kind flourished all over the world until philosophers began to tamper with them.

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A mythological world picture also existed in Greece when the first philosophy was evolving. The stories of the Greek gods had been handed down from generation to generation for centuries. In Greece the gods were called Zeus and Apollo, Hera and Athene, Dionysos and Ascle-pios, Heracles and Hephaestos, to mention only a few of them.

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Around 700 B.C., much of the Greek mythology was written down by Homer and Hesiod. This created a whole new situation. Now that the myths existed in written form, it was possible to discuss them.

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The earliest Greek philosophers criticized Homer’s mythology because the gods resembled mortals too much and were just as egoistic and treacherous. For the first time it was said that the myths were nothing but human notions.

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One exponent of this view was the philosopher Xe-nophanes, who lived from about 570 B.C. Men have created the gods in their own image, he said. They believe the gods were born and have bodies and clothes and language just as we have. Ethiopians believe that the gods are black and flat-nosed, Thracians imagine them to be blue-eyed and fair-haired. If oxen, horses, and lions could draw, they would depict gods that looked like oxen, horses, and lions!

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During that period the Greeks founded many city-states, both in Greece itself and in the Greek colonies in Southern Italy and Asia Minor , where all manual work was done by slaves, leaving the citizens free to devote all their time to politics and culture.

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In these city environments people began to think in a completely new way. Purely on his own behalf, any citizen could question the way society ought to be organized. Individuals could thus also ask philosophical questions without recourse to ancient myths.

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We call this the development from a mythological mode of thought to one based on experience and reason. The aim of the early Greek philosophers was to find natural, rather than supernatural, explanations for natural processes.

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Sophie left the den and wandered about in the large garden. She tried to forget what she had learned at school, especially in science classes.

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If she had grown up in this garden without knowing anything at all about nature, how would she feel about the spring?

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Would she try to invent some kind of explanation for why it suddenly started to rain one day? Would she work out some fantasy to explain where the snow went and why the sun rose in the morning?

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Yes, she definitely would. She began to make up a story:

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Winter held the land in its icy grip because the evil Muriat had imprisoned the beautiful Princess Sikita in a cold prison. But one morning the brave Prince Bravato came and rescued her. Sikita was so happy that she began to dance over the meadows, singing a song she had composed inside the dank prison. The earth and the trees were so moved that all the snow turned into tears. But then the sun came out and dried all the tears away. The birds imitated Sikita’s song, and when the beautiful princess let down her golden tresses, a few locks of her hair fell onto the earth and turned into the lilies of the field ...

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Sophie liked her beautiful story. If she had not known any other explanation for the changing seasons, she felt sure she would have come to believe her own story in the end.

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She understood that people had always felt a need to explain the processes of nature. Perhaps they could not live without such explanations. And that they made up all those myths in the time before there was anything called science.

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