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苏菲的世界|Sophie’s World

希腊文化|Hellenism

属类： 双语小说 【分类】魔幻小说 -[作者: 乔斯坦·贾德] 阅读：[30673]
《 字+字- 行+行- 页+页- 字+字- 行+行- 页+页- 》
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……一丝火花……

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虽然哲学老师已经开始把信直接送到老树篱内，但星期一早晨苏菲仍习惯性地看了看信箱。

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里面是空的，这并不让人意外，她开始沿着苜蓿巷往前走。

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突然间她看到人行道上有一张照片。照片中有一辆白色的吉普车，上面插着一支印有联合国字样的蓝色旗帜。那不是联合国的旗帜吗？

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苏菲把照片翻过来，发现这是一张普通的明信片。上面写着“请苏菲代转席德”，贴着挪威邮票，并盖着199O年6月15日星期五“联合国部队”的邮戳。

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六月十五日！这天正是苏菲的生日呀！

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明信片上写着：

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亲爱的席德：

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我猜想你可能仍在庆祝你的十五岁生日。或者你接到信时，已经是第二天的早上了。无论如何，你都会收到我的礼物。就某个角度看，那是一份可以用一辈子的礼物。不过，我想向你再说一声生日快乐。也许你现在已经明白我为何把这些明信片寄给苏菲了。我相信她一定会把它们转交给你的。

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P．S：妈妈说你把你的皮夹弄丢了。我答应你我会给你一百五十块钱做为补偿。还有，在学校放暑假前你也许可以重办一张学生证。

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爱你的爸爸

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苏菲站在原地不动。上一张明信片邮戳上的日期是几号？她隐约记得那张海滩风景明信片上的邮戳日期也是六月——虽然这两张明信片相隔了一个月。不过她并没有看清楚。

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她看了一下腕表，然后便跑回家中。她今天上学是非迟到不可了。

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苏菲进了门便飞奔到楼上的房间，在那条红色丝巾的下面找到了第一张写给席德的明信片。是的，上面的日期也是六月十五日，就是苏菲的生日，也是学校放暑假的前一天。

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她跑到超级市场去和乔安会合时，心里涌出无数个问号。

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这个席德是谁？她爸爸为什么会认定苏菲可以找到她？无论如何，他把明信片寄给苏菲，而不直接寄给他的女儿是说不通的。

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苏菲想这绝不可能是因为他不知道自己女儿的地址。会是谁在恶作剧吗？他是不是想找一个陌生人来当侦探和信差，以便在女儿生日那天给她一个惊喜呢？这就是他提前一个月让她准备的原因吗？

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他是不是想让她这个中间人成为他女儿的新朋友，并以此做为送给她的生日礼物呢？难道她就是那个“可以用一辈子”的礼物吗？

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如果这个开玩笑的人真的在黎巴嫩，他何以能够得知苏菲的地址？还有，苏菲和席德至少有两件事是相同的。第一，如果席德的生日也是六月十五日，那她们俩就是同一天出生的。第二，她们俩的父亲都远在天边。

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苏菲觉得自己被拉进一个不真实的世界。也许，有时候人还真的不得不相信命运。不过，她还不能太早下结论。这件事可能仍然有个缘故。但是，如果席德住在黎乐桑，艾伯特是如何找到她的皮夹的呢？黎乐桑离这儿有好几百英里呀！同时，这张明信片为什么会躺在苏菲家门口的人行道上？它是不是在邮差来到苏菲家的信箱时由他的邮袋里掉出来的？如果这样，为什么他别的不掉，偏偏掉这一张？

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在超市等候的乔安好不容易才看到苏菲出现。她忍不住说：

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“你疯了吗？”

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“对不起！”

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乔安紧紧皱起眉头，像学校老师一样。

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“你最好给我解释清楚。”

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“都是联合国的缘故。”苏菲说。“我在黎巴嫩被敌方部队拘留了。”

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“少来。我看你是谈恋爱了。”

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她们没命似的跑到学校。

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第三节课时考了苏菲昨天没有时间准备的宗教知识这门课。

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题目如下：

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生命与容忍的哲学

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1.试列举我们可以确实知道的一些事物。然后再列举一些我们只能相信的事物。

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2.请说明影响一个人的生活哲学的因素。

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3.“良知”的意义为何？你认为每一个人都有同样的良知吗？

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4.何谓价值的轻重？

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苏菲坐在那儿想了很久才开始作答。她可以运用她从艾伯特那儿学到的观念吗？她不得不这样做，因为她已经有好几天没有打开宗教知识的教科书了。她一开始作答后，答案仿佛自然而然就从她的笔端流出来一般。

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她写道：我们可以确定的事包括月亮不是由绿乳酪做成的、月球较黑的那一面也有坑洞、苏格拉底和耶稣基督两人都被判死刑、每一个人都迟早会死、希腊高城宏伟的神殿是在公元前五世纪波斯战争后兴建的，还有古希腊最重要的神论是戴尔菲的神论。至于我们不能确知的事物，苏菲举的例子包括；其他星球上是否有生物存在、世间是否真有上帝、人死后是否还有生命、耶稣是上帝之子或者只是一个聪明人。在举出这些例子后，苏菲写道：“我们当然无法确知这世界从何而来。宇宙就好像是一只被魔术师从帽子里拉出来的大白兔。哲学家努力沿着兔子毛皮中的一根细毛往上爬，希望能一睹伟大魔术师的真面目。虽然他们不一定会成功，但如果所有哲学家都像叠罗汉一般一层一层往上叠，则他们就可以愈接近兔子毛皮的顶端。果真如此，在我认为，有一天他们也许真的可以爬到顶端。P．S：圣经中有一个东西很像是兔子的细毛，那就是巴别塔。这个塔最后被伟大的魔术师摧毁了，因为他不希望这些微不足道的人类爬出他一手创造出的兔子的毛皮。”

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第二个问题是：“请说明影响一个人的生活哲学的因素。”苏菲认为教养与环境很重要。生在柏拉图时代的人们所具有的生活哲学与现代人不同，因为他们生活的时代和环境与我们的不同。另外一个因素是人们选择的经验种类。一般常识不是由环境决定的，而是每一个人都具备的。也许我们可以把我们的环境和社会情况与柏拉图的洞穴相比较。一个人若运用他的聪明才智，将可以使自己脱离黑暗。不过这样的路程需要一些勇气，苏格拉底就是一个很好的例子，显示一个人如何运用自己的聪明才智使自己不受当时思想主流的影响。最后，苏菲写道：“在当今这个时代，来自各个地方、各种文化的人们交流日益密切。基督徒、伊斯兰教徒与佛教徒可能住在同一栋公寓中。在这种情况下，接受彼此的信仰要比去问为什么大家不能有一致的信仰更加重要。”

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嗯，答得不坏！苏菲心想。她觉得自己已经运用她从哲学老师那儿学来的知识答出了一些重点，她只要加上一些自己的常识与她从别处听来或读到的东西就成了。

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现在，她专心答第三道问题：“良知是什么？你认为每个人都有同样的良知吗？”

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这个问题他们在课堂上已经讨论过很多次了。苏菲答道：“良知是人们辨别善恶是非的能力。我个人的看法是：‘每一个人天生都具备这种能力。’换句话说，良知是与生俱来的。苏格拉底应该也会持同样的看法。不过良心对人的影响因人而异。在这方面我们可以说诡辩学振的主张不无道理。他们认为是非的观念主要是由个人成长环境决定的。相反的，苏格拉底则相信每一个人的良心都一样。也许这两种观点都没有错。虽然并不是每一个人在大庭广众之下赤身露体时都会感到羞愧，但大多数人在欺负别人后多少都会良心不安。不过，我们也不要忘记，具有良知和运用良知是两回事。有时有些人做起事来一副无耻的模样，但我相信他们内心深处还是有某种良知存在的。就像某些人看起来似乎没有大脑的样子，但这只是因为他们不用脑筋罢了。P．S：常识和良心不像肌肉一样。你不去用它，它就会愈来愈萎缩。”

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现在只剩下一个问题了：“何谓价值的轻重？”这也是他们最近—时常讨论的一个主题。举例来说，开着车子迅速往来各地也许是很重要的，但如果驾驶车辆会导致森林遭到砍伐、自然环境受到污染等后果，我们就必须要作个选择。在仔细考量之后，苏菲的结论是：维护森林的健康和环境的纯净要比能够节省上班途中的交通时间更有价值。她另外又举了一些例子。最后，她写道：“我个人认为哲学这门课要比英文文法更重要。因此，如果学校能将哲学课列入课程，并且略微减少英文课的时间，他们对价值轻重的判断就是正确的。”

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最后一次课间休息时，老师把苏菲拉到一旁。

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“我已经看过了你宗教课考试的试卷。”他说，“你那一份放在整沓试卷的最上面。”

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“我希望它能给你一些启发。”

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“这就是我要跟你谈的。你的答案在许多方面都很成熟，让我非常讶异。同时你有很多自己的想法。不过，苏菲，你有没有做作业呢？”

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苏菲有点心虚。

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“嗯，你不是说一个人要有自己的看法吗？”

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“是啊，我是说过……不过这总有个限度。”

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苏菲看着老师的眼睛。她觉得在最近经历了这些事情后，她应该可以这样做。

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“我已经开始研究哲学了。”她说，“这使我有了一些形成自己意见的基础。”

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“不过这让我很难给你的考卷打分数。要不是D，要不就是A。”

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“因为我要不就答得很对，要不就错得很多。你的意思是这样吗？”

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“那就算你A好了。”老师说。“不过下一次你可要做作业。”

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那天下午苏菲放学后一回到家，把书包丢在门前台阶上后，就马上跑到密洞中。果然有一个棕色的信封躺在虬结的树根上。信封的边缘已经干了。可以想见汉密士已经把信送来很久了。

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她拿了信，进了前门，喂宠物后就上楼。回房后，她躺床上拆阅艾伯特的信：

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希腊文化

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苏菲，我们又上课了。在读完有关自然派哲学家、苏格拉底、柏拉图与亚理斯多德的理论后，你对欧洲哲学的基础应该已经很熟悉了。因此，从现在起，我将省略掉用白色的信封所装的前导式问题。更何况，我想学校给你们的作业和考试可能已经够多了。

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今天我要介绍的是从公元前第四世纪末亚理斯多德时期，一直到公元四百年左右中世纪初期的这一段很长的时期。请注意，我们如今讲公元前、公元后乃是以耶稣降生的前后来区分，而事实上，基督教也是这个时期内最重要、最神秘的因素之一。

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亚理斯多德于公元前三二二年去世，当时雅典人已经失去了挽治者的地位。这一部分原因是亚历山大大帝(公元前三五六～公元前三二三年)征服各地后引发的政治动乱所致。

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亚历山大大帝是马其顿的国王。亚理斯多德也是马其顿人，甚至曾经担任亚历山大小时候的私人教师。亚历山大后来打赢了对波斯人的最后一场决定性的战役。更重要的是，他征服各地的结果使得埃及、东方(远至印度)的文明与希腊的文明得以结合在一起。

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在人类的历史上，这是一个新纪元的开始。一个新文明诞生了。在这个文明中，希腊的文化与希腊的语言扮演了主导的角色。

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这段时期维持了大约三百年，被称为“希腊文化”。这个名词除了指这段时期外，也指在马其顿、叙利亚与埃及这三个希腊王国风行的以希腊为主的文化。

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然而，自从大约公元前五O年以后，罗马在军事与政治上逐渐占了上风。这个新的超级强权逐渐征服了所有的希腊王国。从此以后，从西边的西班牙到东边的亚洲等地，都以罗马文化与拉丁文为主。这是罗马时期(也就是我们经常所说的“近古时期”)的开始。

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不过，我们不可以忘记一件事：在罗马人征服希腊世界之前，罗马本身也受到希腊文化的影响。因此，直到希腊人的政治势力衰微很久以后，希腊文化与希腊哲学仍然继续扮演了很重要的角色。

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宗教、哲学与科学

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希腊文化的特色在于国与国、文化与文化之间的界线泯灭了。

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过去希腊、罗马、埃及、巴比伦、叙利亚、波斯等各民族各有我们一般所说的“国教”，各自崇奉不同的神明。但如今这些不同的文化都仿佛在女巫的咒语之下熔成一炉，汇聚形成各种宗教、哲学与科学概念。

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我们可以说希腊过去的市中心广场已经被世界舞台所取代。

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从前的市镇广场是一片人声嘈杂的景象，有人贩售各种商品，有人宣扬各种思想与概’念。如今的市镇广场依旧充斥着来自世界各地的货品与思想，只不过嘈杂的人声中夹杂了各国的语言。

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我们曾经提到在这个时候，希腊人的人生哲学影响的地区与范围已经比过去扩大许多。不过，逐渐的，地中海地区的各个国家也开始崇奉东方的神祗。也许是在众多古国原有宗教信仰的交互影响之下，新的宗教兴起了。

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我们称这种现象为“信仰的混合”(syncretism)或“信仰的交互激荡”(thefusionofcreeds)。

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在此之前，人们都认同自己所属的城邦。但随着疆界之分逐渐泯灭，许多人开始怀疑自己的社会所持的生命哲学。一般而言，近古时期的特色就是充满了宗教质疑、文化解体与悲观主义。当时的人说：“世界已经衰老了。”希腊文化时期形成的各宗教信仰有一个共同的特征，就是他们经常教导人应该如何获得救赎，免予一死。

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这些教义通常都是以秘密的方式传授。信徒只要接受这些教导，并进行某些仪式，就可望获得不朽的灵魂与永远的生命。但为了达成灵魂的救赎，除了举行宗教仪式外，也有必要对宇宙真实的本质有某种程度的了解。

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关于新宗教，我们就谈到这里了。不过在这个时期，哲学也逐渐朝“救赎”与平安的方向发展。当时的人认为，哲学的智慧不仅本身有其好处，也应该能使人类脱离悲观的心态与对死亡的恐惧。因此，宗教与哲学之间的界线逐渐消失了。

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整体来说，我们不得不承认希腊文化的哲学并没有很大的原创性。在这个时期中，并未再出现一个柏拉图或亚理斯多德。相反的，许多学派乃是受到雅典三大哲学家的启发。待会儿，我将略微描述这些学派。

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希腊的科学同样地也受到各种不同文化的影响。亚力山卓(A1exandria)由于位居东西方的交会点，因此在这方面扮演了关键性的角色。在这个时期，由于雅典城内有一些继柏拉图与亚理斯多德之后的哲学学派，因此雅典仍是哲学中心，而亚力山卓则成为科学中心。那里有规模宏大的图书馆，使得亚力山卓成为数学、天文学、生物学与医学的重镇。

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当时的希腊文化可与现代世界相提并论。二十世纪的文明愈趋开放后，造成了宗教与哲学百花齐放的现象。在基督纪元开始前后，生活在罗马的人们也可以见识到希腊、埃及与东方的各种宗教，就像在二十世纪末期的我们可以在欧洲各大小城市发现来自世界各地的宗教一般。

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今天我们也可以看到新旧宗教、哲学与科学融合之后，如何形成了新的生命哲学。这些所谓的“新知识”实际上只是旧思想的残渣而已，其中有些甚至可以追溯至希腊时代。

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正如我刚才所说的，希腊哲学仍旧致力于解决苏格拉底、柏拉图与亚理斯多德等人提出的问题。他们都同样亟欲找寻人类最佳的生、死之道。他们关心人的伦理与道德。在这个新的文明中，这个问题成为哲学家研讨的重心。他们最关心的乃是何谓真正的幸福以及如何获致这种幸福。下面我们将认识其中四个学派。

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犬儒学派

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据说，有一天苏格拉底站在街上，注视着一个贩卖各种商品的摊子。最后他说：“这些东西中有太多是我根本不需要的啊！”

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这句话可以做为犬儒派哲学的注解。这个学派是在公元前四百年左右由雅典的安提塞尼斯(Antisthenes)所创。安提塞尼斯曾受教于苏格拉底门下，对于苏格拉底节俭的生活方式特别有兴趣，犬儒派学者强调，真正的幸福不是建立在外在环境的优势——如丰裕的物质、强大的政治力量与健壮的身体——之上。真正幸福的人不依赖这些稍纵即逝的东西。同时，由于幸福不是由这类福祉构成的，因此每一个人都可以获致幸福，更重要的是，一旦获得了这种幸福，就不可能失去它。

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最著名的犬儒派人士是安提塞尼斯的弟子戴奥基尼斯(Dio—gzenes)，据说他住在一个木桶中，除了一袭斗篷、一支棍子与一个面包袋之外，什么也没有，(因此要偷取他的幸福可不容易！)有一天他坐在木桶旁，舒服地晒着太阳时，亚历山大大帝前来探望他。

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亚历山大站在他的前面，告诉他只要他想要任何东西，他都可以赐予他。戴奥基尼斯答道：“我希望你闪到旁边，让我可以晒到太阳。”

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就这样，戴奥基尼斯证明他比亚历山大这位伟大的将军要更富裕，也更快乐，因为他已经拥有了自己想要的一切。

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犬儒学派相信，人们毋需担心自己的健康，不应该因生老病死而苦恼，也不必担心别人的痛苦而让自己活受罪。

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于是，到了今天，“犬儒主义”这些名词的意思变成是对人类真诚的轻蔑不信，暗含对别人的痛苦无动于衷的态度与行为。

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斯多葛学派

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犬儒学派促进了斯多葛学派的发展。后者在公元三百年左右兴起于雅典。它的创始人是季诺(Zeno)。此人最初住在塞浦勒斯，在一次船难后来到雅典，加入犬儒学派。他经常在门廊上聚集徒众。斯多葛(Stoic)这个字就是源自希腊文stoa(门廊)这个字。这个学派后来对于罗马文化有很大的影响。

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就像赫拉克里特斯一样，斯多葛派人士相信每一个人都是宇宙常识的一小部分，每一个人都像是一个“小宇宙”(microcosmos)，乃是“大宇宙”(macrocosmos)的缩影。

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他们因此相信宇宙间有公理存在，亦即所谓“神明的律法”。由于此一神明律法是建立在亘古长存的人类理性与宇宙理性之上，因此不会随时空而改变。在这方面，斯多葛学派的主张与苏格拉底相同，而与诡辩学派相异。

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斯多葛学派认为，全体人类(包括奴隶在内)都受到神明律法的管辖。在他们眼中，当时各国的法律条文只不过是模仿大自然法则的一些不完美法条罢了。

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斯多葛学派除了否认个人与宇宙有别之外，也不认为“精神”与“物质”之间有任何冲突。他们主张宇宙间只有一个大自然。这种想法被称为“一元论”(monism)，与柏拉图明显的“二元论”(du—alism)或“双重实在论”正好相反。

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斯多葛学派人士极富时代精神，思想非常开放。他们比那些“木桶哲学家”(犬儒学派)更能接受当代文化，他们呼吁人们发扬“民胞物与”的精神，也非常关心政治。他们当中有许多人后来都成为活跃的政治家，其中最有名的是罗马皇帝奥瑞里亚斯(MarcusAurellus，公元121年～180年)。他们在罗马提倡希腊文化与希腊哲学，其中最出类拔萃的是集演讲家、哲学家与政治家等各种头衔于一身的西塞罗(Cicero，公元前106年～公元前43年)，所谓“人本主义”(一种主张以个人为人类生活重心的哲学)就是由他创立的。若干年后，同为斯多葛学派的塞尼卡(Seneca，公元前4年～公元65年)表示：“对人类而言，人是神圣的。”这句话自此成为人本主义的口号。

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此外，斯多葛学派强调，所有的自然现象，如生病与死亡，都只是遵守大自然不变的法则罢了，因此人必须学习接受自己的命运。

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没有任何事物是偶然发生的，每一件事物发生都有其必要性，因此当命运来敲你家大门时，抱怨也没有用。他们认为，我们也不能为生活中一些欢乐的事物所动。在这方面，他们的观点与犬儒学派相似，因为后者也宣称所有外在事物都不重要。到了今天，我们仍用“斯多葛式的冷静”(stoiccalm)来形容那些不会感情用事的人。

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伊比鸠鲁学派

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如上所述，苏格拉底关心的是人如何能够过着良好的生活，犬儒学派与斯多葛学派将他的哲学解释成“人不能沉溺于物质上的享受”。不过，苏格拉底另外一个弟子阿瑞斯提普斯(Aristippus)则认为人生的目标就是要追求最高度的感官享受。“人生至善之事乃是享乐。”他说，“至恶之事乃是受苦。”因此他希望发展出一种生活方式，以避免所有形式的痛苦为目标。(犬儒学派与斯多葛学派认为人应该忍受各种痛苦，这与致力避免痛苦是不同的。)

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公元前三百年左右，伊比鸠鲁(Epicurus，公元前341年～公元前27O年)在雅典创办了“伊比鸠鲁学派”。他将阿瑞斯提普斯的享乐主义加以发展，并与德谟克里特斯的原于论结合起来。

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由于传说中伊比鸠鲁住在一座花园里，因此这个学派的人士又被称为“花园哲学家”。据说，在这座花园的入口处上方有二块告示牌写着：“陌生人，你将在此地过着舒适的生活。在这里享乐乃是至善之事物。”

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伊比鸠鲁学派强调在我们考量一个行动是否有乐趣时，必须同时斟酌它可能带来的副作用。如果你曾经放怀大嚼巧克力，你就会明白我的意思。如果你不曾这样做过，那么你可以做以下练习：

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把你存的两百元零用钱全部拿来买巧克力(假设你很爱吃巧克力)，而且把它一次吃完(这是这项练习的重点)。大约半个小时以后当所有美味的巧克力都吃光了之后，你就会明白伊比鸠鲁所谓的“副作用”是什么意思了。

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伊比鸠鲁并且相信在追求较短暂的快乐时，必须考虑是否另有其他方式可以获致更大、更持久或更强烈的快乐(譬如你决定一年不吃巧克力，因为你想把零用钱存起来买一辆新的脚踏车或去海外度一次豪华假期)。人类不像动物，因为我们可以规划自己的生活。我们有能力从事“乐趣的计算”。巧克力固然好吃，但买一辆新脚踏车或去英国旅游一趟更加美妙。

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尽管如此，伊比鸠鲁强调，所谓“乐趣”并不一定指感官上的快乐，如吃巧克力等。交朋友与欣赏艺术等也是一种乐趣。此外，我们若要活得快乐，必须遵守古希腊人自我规范、节制与平和等原则。自我的欲望必须加以克制，而平和的心境则可以帮助我们忍受痛苦。

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当时有许多人由于惧怕神明而来到伊比鸠鲁的花园。这是因为德谟克里特斯的原子理论可以有效祛除宗教迷信，而为了好好生活，克服自己对死亡的恐惧是很重要的。于是，伊比鸠鲁便运用德谟克里特斯有关“灵魂原子”的理论来达到这个目的。你也许还记得，德谟克里特斯相信人死后没有生命，因为当我们死时，“灵魂原子”就四处飞散。

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“死亡和我们没有关系，”伊比鸠鲁扼要地说，“因为只要我们存在一天，死亡就不会来临。而当死亡来临时，我们也不再存在了。”(说到这点，我们好像从没听说过有谁得了死亡这种病。)

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伊比鸠鲁以他所谓的“四种药草”来总结他的哲学：

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“神不足惧，死不足忧，祸苦易忍，福乐易求。”

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对于希腊人而言，伊比鸠鲁将哲学与医学相提并论的做法并不新鲜。他的主旨是：人应该拥有一个“哲学的药柜”，储存以上四种药方。

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与斯多葛学派截然不同的是，伊比鸠鲁学派对于政治或团体生活并不感兴趣。伊比鸠鲁劝人要“离群索居”。我们也许可以将他的“花园”比做时下的一些公社。我们这个时代确实也有许多人离开社会，前往某处去寻求“避风的港湾”。

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在伊比鸠鲁之后，许多伊比鸠鲁学派的人士逐渐沉溺于自我放纵。他们的格言是“今朝有酒今朝醉”。Epicurean这个字如今已具有贬意，被人们用来形容那些专门追求享乐的人。

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新柏拉图派哲学

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我们已经了解犬儒学派、斯多葛学派及伊比鸠鲁学派与苏格拉底哲学的渊源。当然这些学派也采纳了若干苏格拉底之前的哲学家——如赫拉克里特斯与德谟克里特斯等人——的学说。

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然而，希腊文化末期最令人瞩目的哲学学派主要仍是受到柏拉图学说的启发，因此我们称之为新柏拉图派哲学。

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新柏拉图派哲学最重要的人物是普罗汀(Plotinus，约公元205年～27O年)。他早年在亚力山卓研读哲学，后来在罗马定居；当时，亚力山卓成为希腊哲学与东方神秘主义的交会点已经有好几百年了。普罗汀从那儿将他的“救赎论”(doctrineofsalvation)带到罗马。此一学说后来成为基督教的劲敌。不过，新柏拉图派哲学对基督教神学也具有很大的影响力。

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苏菲，你还记得柏拉图的理型论吗？你应该记得他将宇宙分为理型世界与感官世界。这表示他将肉体与灵魂区分得很清楚。在这种情况下，人乃成为二元的造物：我们的身体就像感官世界，所有的事物一般是由尘与土所构成，但我们的灵魂却是不朽的。早在粕拉图之前，许多希腊人就已经持此观念，而亚洲人也有类似的看法。普罗汀对这点相当熟悉。

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普罗汀认为，世界横跨两极。一端是他称为“上帝”的神圣之光，另一端则是完全的黑暗，接受不到任何来自上帝的亮光。不过，普罗汀的观点是：这个黑暗世界其实并不存在，它只是缺乏亮光照射而已。世间存在的只有上帝。就像光线会逐渐变弱，终至于熄灭一样，世间也有一个角落是神圣之光无法普照的。

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根据普罗汀的说法，灵魂受到此一神圣之光的照耀，而物质则位于并不真正存在的黑暗世界，至于自然界的形式则微微受到神圣之光的照射。

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让我们想象夜晚升起一堆野火的景象。此时，火花四散，火光将黑夜照亮。从好几英里外望过来，火光清晰可见。但如果我们再走远一些，就只能看到一小点亮光，就像黑暗中远处的灯笼一样。

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如果我们再继续走下去，到了某一点时，我们就再也看不见火光了。此时火光已消失在黑夜中。在这一片黑暗之中，我们看不见任何事物，看不见任何形体或影子。

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你可以想象真实世界就像这样一堆野火。发出熊熊火光的是“上帝”，火光照射不到的黑暗之处则是构成人与动物的冷冷的物质。最接近上帝的是那些永恒的观念。它们是所有造物据以做成的根本形式。而人的灵魂则是那飞散的“火花”。大自然的每一处或多或少都受到这神圣之光的照耀。我们在所有的生物中都可以见到这种光，就连一朵玫瑰或一株风铃草也不例外。离上帝最远的则是那些泥土、水与石头。

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我的意思是说：世间存在的每一样事物都有这种神秘的神圣之光。我们可以看到它在向日葵或罂粟花中闪烁着光芒。在一只飞离枝头的蝴蝶或在水缸中漫游穿梭的金鱼身上，我们可以看到更多这种深不可测的神秘之光。然而，最靠近上帝的还是我们的灵魂。唯有在灵魂中，我们才能与生命的伟大与神秘合而为一。事实上，在某些很偶然的时刻中，我们可以体验到自我就是那神圣的神秘之光。

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昔罗汀的比喻很像柏拉图所说的洞穴神话：我们愈接近洞，就愈接近宇宙万物的源头。不过，与柏拉图的二元论相反的是，普罗汀理论的特色在于万物一体的经验。宇宙间万事万物都是一体，因为上帝存在于万事万物之中。即使在柏拉图所说的洞穴深处的影子中也有微弱的上帝之光。

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普罗汀一生中曾有一两次灵魂与上帝合而为一的体验，我们通常称此为神秘经验。除了普罗汀之外，也有人有过这种经验。事实上，古今中外都有人宣称他们有过同样的体验。细节也许不同，但都具有同样的特征。现在让我们来看看这些特征。

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神秘

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神秘经验是一种与上帝或“天地之心”合而为一的体验。许多宗教都强调上帝与整个宇宙之间的差距，但在神秘主义者的体验中，这种差距并不存在。他(她)们有过与“上帝”合而为一的经验。

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他们认为，我们通常所称的“我”事实上并不是真正的“我”。有时在一刹那间，我们可以体验到一个更大的“我”的存在。有些神秘主义者称这个“我”为“上帝”，也有人称之为“天地之心”、“大自然”或“宇宙”。当这种物我交融的情况发生时，神秘主义者觉得他们失去了自我，像一滴水落入海洋一般进入上帝之中。一位印度的神秘主义者有一次如此形容他的经验：“过去，当我的自我存在时，我感觉不到上帝。如今我感觉到上帝的存在，自我就消失了。”基督教的神秘主义者塞伦西亚斯(Silesius，公元1624年～1677年)则另有一种说法：“每一滴水流入海洋后，就成为海洋。同样的，当灵魂终于上升时，则成为上帝。”

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你也许会反驳说，“失去自我”不可能是一种很愉快的经验。我明白你的意思。但重点是，你所失去的东西比起你所得到的东西是显得多么微不足道。你所失去的只是眼前这种形式的自我，但同时你却会发现自己变得更广大。你就是宇宙。事实上，你就是那天地之心，这时你也就是上帝。如果你失去了“苏菲”这个自我，有一点可以让你觉得比较安慰的是：这个“凡俗的自我”乃是你我无论如何终有一天会失去的。而根据神秘主义者的说法，你的真正的“自我”——这个你唯有放弃自我才能感受到的东西——却像一股神秘的火焰一般，会燃烧到永恒。

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不过，类似这样的神秘经验并不一定会自动产生。神秘主义者也许必须透过“净化与启蒙”才能与上帝交流。其方式包括过着简朴的生活以及练习静坐。之后，也许有一天他们可以达到目标，并宣称：“我就是上帝。”

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神秘主义在世界各大宗教中都见得到。来自各种不同文化的人们所描述的神秘经验往往极为相似。唯有在神秘主义者试图为他们的神秘经验寻求宗教或哲学上的解释时，文化差异才会显现出来。

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西方(犹太教、基督教与伊斯兰教)的神秘主义者强调，他们见到的是一个人形的上帝。他们认为，尽管上帝存在于大自然与人的灵魂中，但他也同时超越万物之上。东方(印度教、佛教与中国的宗教)的神秘主义者则较强调他们的神秘经验乃是一种与上帝或“天地之心”水乳交融的经验。

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神秘主义者可以宣称：“我就是天地之心”或“我即上帝”，因为上帝不仅存在于天地万物之中，他本身就是天地万物。

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神秘主义在印度尤其盛行。早在柏拉图之前，印度就已经有了浓厚的神秘主义色彩。曾促使印度教传入西方的一位印度人余维卡南达(SwamiVivekenanda)有一次说道：

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“世界上有些宗教将那些不相信上帝以人形存在于众生之外的人称为无神论者。同样的，我们也说那些不相信自己的人是无神论者。因为，我们认为，所谓无神论就是不相信自己灵魂的神圣与可贵。”

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神秘经验也具有道德价值。曾任印度总统的拉德哈克里希南(SarvepalliRadhakrishnan)曾说：“你当爱邻如己，因你的邻人就是你，你是在幻觉中才将他当成别人。”

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我们这个时代有些不信仰任何特定宗教的人也曾有过神秘经验。他们会突然感受到某种他们称之为“宇宙意识”或“大感觉”(oceanicfeeling)的事物，觉得自己脱离时空，“从永恒的观点”来感受这个世界。

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苏菲坐在床上，想感受一下自己的身体是否仍然存在。当她读着柏拉图与神秘主义的哲学时，开始觉得自己在房间内到处飘浮，飘到窗外、愈飘愈远，浮在城镇的上空，从那儿向下看着广场上的人群，然后不断飘着，飘到地球的上方、飘到北海和欧洲的上空，再继续飘过撒哈拉沙漠与非洲大草原。

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她觉得整个世界就好像一个人一般，而感觉上这个人就是她自己。她心想，世界就是我。那个她过去经常觉得深不可测、令人害怕的辽阔宇宙，乃是她的“自我”。如今，宇宙依然庄严辽阔，但这个广大的宇宙却是她自己。

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这种不寻常的感觉稍纵即逝，但苏菲相信她永远也忘不了。那种感觉就像是她体内的某种东西从她的额头进裂而出，与宇宙万物融合在一起，就像一滴颜料使整罐水染上色彩一般。

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这种感觉过后，人就像作了一个美梦，醒来时感到头痛一般，当苏菲意识到自己的躯壳仍然存在，且正坐在床上时，内心不免略微感到失望。由于刚才一直趴在床上看信，她的背现在隐隐作痛。

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不过，至少她已经体验到这种令她难忘的感觉了。

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最后，她振作精神，站了起来。她所做的第一件事就是在信纸上打洞。并把它放进讲义夹内。然后，便走到花园里去。

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花园中鸟儿们正在歌唱，仿佛世界才刚诞生。老白兔笼后的几株桦树叶子是如此嫩绿，仿佛造物主尚未完成调色的工作。

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世间万物果真都是一个神圣的“自我”吗？她的灵魂果真是那神圣之火的“火花”吗？苏菲心想，如果这一切都是真的，那么她确实是一个神圣的造物了。

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... a spark from the fire

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Although the philosophy teacher had begun sending his letters directly to the old hedge, Sophie nevertheless looked in the mailbox on Monday morning, more out of habit than anything else.

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It was empty, not surprisingly. She began to walk down Clover Close.

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Suddenly she noticed a photograph lying on the sidewalk. It was a picture of a white jeep and a blue flag with the letters UN on it. Wasn’t that the United Nations flag?

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Sophie turned the picture over and saw that it was a regular postcard. To "Hilde Moller Knag, c/o Sophie Amundsen ..." It had a Norwegian stamp and was postmarked "UN Battalion " Friday June 15, 1990.

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June 15! That was Sofie’s birthday!

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The card read:

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Dear Hilde, I assume you are still celebrating your 15th birthday. Or is this the morning after? Anyway, it makes no difference to your present. In a sense, that will last a lifetime. But I’d like to wish you a happy birthday one more time. Perhaps you understand now why I send the cards to Sophie. I am sure she will pass them on to you.

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P.S. Mom said you had lost your wallet. I hereby promise to reimburse you the 150 crowns. You will probably be able to get another school I.D. before they close for the summer vacation. Love from Dad.

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Sophie stood glued to the spot. When was the previous card postmarked? She seemed to recall that the postcard of the beach was also postmarked June--even though it was a whole month off. She simply hadn’t looked properly.

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She glanced at her watch and then ran back to the house. She would just have to be late for school today!

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Sophie let herself in and leaped upstairs to her room. She found the first postcard to Hilde under the red silk scarf. Yes! It was also postmarked June 15! Sophie’s birthday and the day before the summer vacation.

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Her mind was racing as she ran over to the supermarket to meet Joanna.

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Who was Hilde? How could her father as good as take it for granted that Sophie would find her? In any case, it was senseless of him to send Sophie the cards instead of sending them directly to his daughter. It could not possibly be because he didn’t know his own daughter’s address. Was it a practical joke? Was he trying to surprise his daughter on her birthday by getting a perfect stranger to play detective and mailman? Was that why she was being given a month’s headstart? And was using her as the go-between a way of giving his daughter a new girlfriend as a birthday present? Could she be the present that would "last a lifetime"?

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If this joker really was in Lebanon, how had he gotten hold of Sophie’s address? Also, Sophie and Hilde had at least two things in common. If Hilde’s birthday was June 15, they were both born on the same day. And they both had fathers who were on the other side of the globe.

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Sophie felt she was being drawn into an unnatural world. Maybe it was not so dumb after all to believe in fate. Still--she shouldn’t be jumping to conclusions; it could all have a perfectly natural explanation. But how had Alberto Knox found Hilde’s wallet when Hilde lived in Lillesand? Lillesand was hundreds of miles away. And why had Sophie found this postcard on her sidewalk? Did it fall out of the mailman’s bag just as he got to Sophie’s mailbox? If so, why should he drop this particular card?

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"Are you completely insane?" Joanna burst out when Sophie finally made it to the supermarket.

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"Sorry!"

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Joanna frowned at her severely , like a schoolteacher.

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"You’d better have a good explanation."

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"It has to do with the UN," said Sophie. "I was detained by hostile troops in Lebanon."

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"Sure ... You’re just in love!"

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They ran to school as fast as their legs could carry them.

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The Religious Knowledge test that Sophie had not had time to prepare for was given out in the third period. The sheet read: PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE AND TOLERANCE 1. Make a list of things we can know. Then make a list of things we can only believe.

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2. Indicate some of the factors contributing to a person’s philosophy of life.

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3. What is meant by conscience? Do you think conscience is the same for everyone?

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4. What is meant by priority of values?

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Sophie sat thinking for a long time before she started to write. Could she use any of the ideas she had learned from Alberto Knox? She was going to have to, because she had not opened her Religious Knowledge book for days. Once she began to write, the words simply flowed from her pen.

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She wrote that we know the moon is not made of green cheese and that there are also craters on the dark side of the moon, that both Socrates and Jesus were sentenced to death, that everybody has to die sooner or later, that the great temples on the Acropolis were built after the Persian wars in the fifth century B.C. and that the most important oracle in ancient Greece was the oracle at Delphi. As examples of what we can only believe, Sophie mentioned the questions of whether or not there is life on other planets, whether God exists or not, whether there is life after death, and whether Jesus was the son of God or merely a wise man. "We can certainly not know where the world came from," she wrote, completing her list. "The universe can be compared to a large rabbit pulled out of a top hat. Philosophers try to climb up one of the fine hairs of the rabbit’s fur and stare straight into the eyes of the Great Magician. Whether they will ever succeed is an open question. But if each philosopher climbed onto another one’s back, they would get even higher up in the rabbit’s fur, and then, in my opinion, there would be some chance they would make it some day. P.S. In the Bible there is something that could have been one of the fine hairs of the rabbit’s fur. The hair was called the Tower of Babel, and it was destroyed because the Magician didn’t want the tiny human insects to crawl up that high out of the white rabbit he had just created."

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Then there was the next question: "Indicate some of the factors contributing to a person’s philosophy of life." Upbringing and environment were important here. People living at the time of Plato had a different philosophy of life than many people have today because they lived in a different age and a different environment. Another factor was the kind of experience people chose to get themselves. Common sense was not determined by environment. Everybody had that. Maybe one could compare environment and social situation with the conditions that existed deep down in Plato’s cave. By using their intelligence individuals can start to drag themselves up from the darkness. But a journey like that requires personal courage. Socrates is a good example of a person who managed to free himself from the prevailing views of his time by his own intelligence. Finally, she wrote: "Nowadays, people of many lands and cultures are being intermingled more and more. Christians , Muslims, and Buddhists may live in the same apartment building. In which case it is more important to accept each other’s beliefs than to ask why everyone does not believe the same thing."

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Not bad, thought Sophie. She certainly felt she had covered some ground with what she had learned from her philosophy teacher. And she could always supplement it with a dash of her own common sense and what she might have read and heard elsewhere.

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She applied herself to the third question: "What is meant by conscience? Do you think conscience is the same for everyone?" This was something they had discussed a lot in class. Sophie wrote: Conscience is people’s ability to respond to right and wrong. My personal opinion is that everyone is endowed with this ability, so in other words, conscience is innate . Socrates would have said the same. But just what conscience dictates can vary a lot from one person to the next. One could say that the Sophists had a point here. They thought that right and wrong is something mainly determined by the environment the individual grows up in. Socrates, on the other hand, believed that conscience is the same for everyone. Perhaps both views were right. Even if everybody doesn’t feel guilty about showing themselves naked, most people will have a bad conscience if they are really mean to someone. Still, it must be remembered that having a conscience is not the same as using it. Sometimes it looks as if people act quite unscrupulously, but I believe they also have a kind of conscience somewhere, deep down. Just as it seems as if some people have no sense at all, but that’s only because they are not using it. P.S. Common sense and conscience can both be compared to a muscle. If you don’t use a muscle, it gets weaker and weaker."

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Now there was only one question left: "What is meant by priority of values?" This was another thing they had discussed a lot lately. For example, it could be of value to drive a car and get quickly from one place to another. But if driving led to deforestation and polluting the natural environment, you were facing a choice of values. After careful consideration Sophie felt she had come to the conclusion that healthy forests and a pure environment were more valuable than getting to work quickly. She gave several more examples. Finally she wrote: "Personally, I think Philosophy is a more important subject than English Grammar. It would therefore be a sensible priority of values to have Philosophy on the timetable and cut down a bit on English lessons."

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In the last break the teacher drew Sophie aside.

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"I have already read your Religion test," he said. "It was near the top of the pile."

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"I hope it gave you some food for thought."

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"That was exactly what I wanted to talk to you about. It was in many ways very mature. Surprisingly so. And self-reliant. But had you done your homework, Sophie?"

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Sophie fidgeted a little.

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"Well, you did say it was important to have a personal point of view."

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"Well, yes I did ... but there are limits."

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Sophie looked him straight in the eye. She felt she could permit herself this after all she had experienced lately.

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"I have started studying philosophy," she said. "It gives one a good background for personal opinions."

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"But it doesn’t make it easy for me to grade your paper. It will either be a D or an A."

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"Because I was either quite right or quite wrong? Is that what you’re saying?"

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"So let’s say A," said the teacher. "But next time, do your homework!"

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When Sophie got home from school that afternoon, she flung her schoolbag on the steps and ran down to the den . A brown envelope lay on top of the gnarled roots. It was quite dry around the edges, so it must have been a long time since Hermes had dropped it.

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She took the envelope with her and let herself in the front door. She fed the animals and then went upstairs to her room. Lying on her bed, she opened Alberto’s letter and read: HELLENISM Here we are again, Sophie! Having read about the natural philosophers and Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, you are now familiar with the foundations of European philosophy. So from now on we will drop the introductory questions which you earlier received in white envelopes. I imagine you probably have plenty of other assignments and tests at school.

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I shall now tell you about the long period from Aristotle near the end of the fourth century B.C. right up to the early Middle Ages around A.D. 400. Notice that we can now write both B.C. and A.D. because Christianity was in fact one of the most important, and the most mysterious, factors of the period.

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Aristotle died in the year 322 B.C., at the time when Athens had lost its dominant role. This was not least due to the political upheavals resulting from the conquests of Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.).

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Alexander the Great was the King of Macedonia. Aristotle was also from Macedonia, and for a time he was even the young Alexander’s tutor. It was Alexander who won the final, decisive victory over the Persians. And moreover, Sophie, with his many conquests he linked both Egypt and the Orient as far east as India to the Greek civilization.

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This marked the beginning of a new epoch in the history of mankind. A civilization sprang up in which Greek culture and the Greek language played a leading role. This period, which lasted for about 300 years, is known as Hellenism. The term Hellenism refers to both the period of time and the Greek-dominated culture that prevailed in the three Hellenistic kingdoms of Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt.

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However, from about the year 50 B.C., Rome secured the upper hand in military and political affairs. The new superpower gradually conquered all the Hellenistic kingdoms, and from then on Roman culture and the Latin language were predominant from Spain in the west to far into Asia. This was the beginning of the Roman period, which we often refer to as Late Antiquity . But remember one thing--before the Romans managed to conquer the Hellenistic world, Rome itself was a province of Greek culture. So Greek culture and Greek philosophy came to play an important role long after the political influence of the Greeks was a thing of the past.

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Religion, Philosophy and ScienceHellenism was characterized by the fact that the borders between the various countries and cultures became erased . Previously the Greeks, the Romans, the Egyptians, the Babylonians, the Syrians, and the Persians had worshipped their own gods within what we generally call a "national religion." Now the different cultures merged into one great witch’s caldron of religious, philosophical , -and scientific ideas.

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We could perhaps say that the town square was replaced by the world arena . The old town square had also buzzed with voices, bringing now different wares to market, now different thoughts and ideas. The new aspect was that town squares were being filled with wares and ideas from all over the world. The voices were buzzing in many different languages.

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We have already mentioned that the Greek view of life was now much more widespread than it had been in the former Greek cultural areas. But as time went on, Oriental gods were also worshipped in all the Mediterranean countries. New religious formations arose that could draw on the gods and the beliefs of many of the old nations. This is called syncretism or the fusion of creeds .

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Prior to this, people had felt a strong affinity with their own folk and their own city-state. But as the borders and boundaries became erased, many people began to experience doubt and uncertainty about their philosophy of life. Late Antiquity was generally characterized by religious doubts, cultural dissolution, and pessimism . It was said that "the world has grown old."

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A common feature of the new religious formations during the Hellenistic period was that they frequently contained teachings about how mankind could attain salvation from death. These teachings were often secret. By accepting the teachings and performing certain rituals, a believer could hope for the immortality of the soul and eternal life. A certain insight into the true nature of the universe could be just as important for the salvation of the soul as religious rituals.

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So much for the new religions, Sophie. But philosophy was also moving increasingly in the direction of "salvation" and serenity . Philosophic insight, it was now thought, did not only have its own reward; it should also free mankind from pessimism and the fear of death. Thus the boundaries between religion and philosophy were gradually eliminated.

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In general, the philosophy of Hellenism was not star-tlingly original. No new Plato or Aristotle appeared on the scene. On the contrary, the three great Athenian philosophers were a source of inspiration to a number of philosophic trends which I shall briefly describe in a moment.

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Hellenistic science, too, was influenced by a blend of knowledge from the various cultures. The town of Alexandria played a key role here as a meeting place between East and West. While Athens remained the center of philosophy with still functioning schools of philosophy after Plato and Aristotle, Alexandria became the center for science. With its extensive library, it became the center for mathematics, astronomy, biology, and medicine.

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Hellenistic culture could well be compared to the world of today. The twentieth century has also been influenced by an increasingly open civilization. In our own time, too, this opening out has resulted in tremendous upheavals for religion and philosophy. And just as in Rome around the beginning of the Christian era one could come across Greek, Egyptian, and Oriental religions, today, as we approach the end of the twentieth century, we can find in all European cities of any size religions from all parts of the world.

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We also see nowadays how a conglomeration of old and new religions, philosophies, and sciences can form the basis of new offers on the "view-of-life" market. Much of this "new knowledge" is actually the flotsam of old thought, some of whose roots go back to Hellenism.

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As I have said, Hellenistic philosophy continued to work with the problems raised by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Common to them all was their desire to discover how mankind should best live and die. They were concerned with ethics . In the new civilization, this became the central philosophical project. The main emphasis was on finding out what true happiness was and how it could be achieved. We are going to look at four of these philosophical trends.

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The Cynics The story goes that one day Socrates stood gazing at a stall that sold all kinds of wares. Finally he said, "What a lot of things I don’t need!"

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This statement could be the motto for the Cynic school of philosophy, founded by Antisthenes in Athens around 400 B.C.

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Antisthenes had been a pupil of Socrates, and had become particularly interested in his frugality .

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The Cynics emphasized that true happiness is not found in external advantages such as material luxury, political power, or good health. True happiness lies in not being dependent on such random and fleeting things. And because happiness does not consist in benefits of this kind, it is within everyone’s reach. Moreover, having once been attained , it can never be lost.

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The best known of the Cynics was Diogenes, a pupil of Antisthenes, who reputedly lived in a barrel and owned nothing but a cloak, a stick, and a bread bag. (So it wasn’t easy to steal his happiness from him!) One day while he was sitting beside his barrel enjoying the sun, he was visited by Alexander the Great. The emperor stood before him and asked if there was anything he could do for him. Was there anything he desired? "Yes," Diogenes replied. "Stand to one side. You’re blocking the sun." Thus Diogenes showed that he was no less happy and rich than the great man before him. He had everything he desired.

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The Cynics believed that people did not need to be concerned about their own health. Even suffering and death should not disturb them. Nor should they let them-selves be tormented by concern for other people’s woes . Nowadays the terms " cynical " and "cynicism" have come to mean a sneering disbelief in human sincerity , and they imply insensitivity to other people’s suffering.

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The Stoics The Cynics were instrumental in the development of the Stoic school of philosophy, which grew up in Athens around 300 B.C. Its founder was Zeno, who came originally from Cyprus and joined the Cynics in Athens after being shipwrecked. He used to gather his followers under a portico . The name "Stoic" comes from the Greek word for portico (stoo). Stoicism was later to have great significance for Roman culture.

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Like Heraclitus, the Stoics believed that everyone was a part of the same common sense--or "logos." They thought that each person was like a world in miniature, or "microcosmos," which is a reflection of the "macro-cosmos."

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This led to the thought that there exists a universal right-ness, the so-called natural law. And because this natural law was based on timeless human and universal reason, it did not alter with time and place. In this, then, the Stoics sided with Socrates against the Sophists.

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Natural law governed all mankind, even slaves. The Stoics considered the legal statutes of the various states merely as incomplete imitations of the "law" embedded in nature itself.

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In the same way that the Stoics erased the difference between the individual and the universe, they also denied any conflict between "spirit" and "matter." There is only one nature, they averred . This kind of idea is called monism (in contrast to Plato’s clear dualism or two-fold reality).

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As true children of their time, the Stoics were distinctly "cosmopolitan," in that they were more receptive to contemporary culture than the "barrel philosophers" (the Cynics). They drew attention to human fellowship, they were preoccupied with politics, and many of them, notably the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 121-180), were active statesmen. They encouraged Greek culture and philosophy in Rome, one of the most distinguished of them being the orator , philosopher, and statesman Cicero (106-43 B.C.). It was he who formed the very concept of "humanism"--that is, a view of life that has the individual as its central focus. Some years later, the Stoic Seneca (4 B.C.-A.D. 65) said that "to mankind, mankind is holy." This has remained a slogan for humanism ever since.

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The Stoics, moreover, emphasized that all natural processes, such as sickness and death, follow the unbreakable laws of nature. Man must therefore learn to accept his destiny. Nothing happens accidentally. Everything happens through necessity, so it is of little use to complain when fate comes knocking at the door. One must also accept the happy events of life unperturbed, they thought. In this we see their kinship with the Cynics, who claimed that all external events were unimportant. Even today we use the term "stoic calm" about someone who does not let his feelings take over.

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The Epicureans As we have seen, Socrates was concerned with finding out how man could live a good life. Both the Cynics and the Stoics interpreted his philosophy as meaning that man had to free himself from material luxuries. But Socrates also had a pupil named Aristippus. He believed that the aim of life was to attain the highest possible sensory enjoyment

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. "The highest good is pleasure," he said, "the greatest evil is pain." So he wished to develop a way of life whose aim was to avoid pain in all forms. (The Cynics and the Stoics believed in enduring pain of all kinds, which is not the same as setting out to avoid pain.)

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Around the year 300 B.C., Epicurus (341-270) founded a school of philosophy in Athens. His followers were called Epicureans. He developed the pleasure ethic of Aristippus and combined it with the atom theory of Democritus.

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The story goes that the Epicureans lived in a garden. They were therefore known as the "garden philosophers." Above the entrance to this garden there is said to have hung a notice saying, "Stranger, here you will live well. Here pleasure is the highest good."

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Epicurus emphasized that the pleasurable results of an action must always be weighed against its possible side effects. If you have ever binged on chocolate you know what I mean. If you haven’t, try this exercise: Take all your saved-up pocket money and buy two hundred crowns’ worth of chocolate. (We’ll assume you like chocolate.) It is essential to this exercise that you eat it all at one time. About half an hour later, when all that delicious chocolate is eaten, you will understand what Epicurus meant by side effects.

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Epicurus also believed that a pleasurable result in the short term must be weighed against the possibility of a greater, more lasting , or more intense pleasure in the long term. (Maybe you abstain from eating chocolate for a whole year because you prefer to save up all your pocket money and buy a new bike or go on an expensive vacation abroad.) Unlike animals, we are able to plan our lives. We have the ability to make a "pleasure calculation." Chocolate is good, but a new bike or a trip to England is better.

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Epicurus emphasized, though, that "pleasure" does not necessarily mean sensual pleasure--like eating chocolate, for instance. Values such as friendship and the appreciation of art also count. Moreover, the enjoyment of life required the old Greek ideals of self-control, temperance, and serenity. Desire must be curbed , and serenity will help us to endure pain.

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Fear of the gods brought many people to the garden of Epicurus. In this connection, the atom theory of Democritus was a useful cure for religious superstitions . In order to live a good life it is not unimportant to overcome the fear of death. To this end Epicurus made use of Democritus’s theory of the "soul atoms." You may perhaps remember that Democritus believed there was no life after death because when we die, the "soul atoms" disperse in all directions.

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"Death does not concern us," Epicurus said quite simply, "because as long as we exist, death is not here. And when it does come, we no longer exist." (When you think about it, no one has ever been bothered by being dead.)

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Epicurus summed up his liberating philosophy with what he called the four medicinal herbs:

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The gods are not to be feared. Death is nothing to worry about. Good is easy to attain. The fearful is easy to endure.

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From a Greek point of view, there was nothing new in comparing philosophical projects with those of medical science. The intention was simply that man should equip himself with a "philosophic medicine chest" containing the four ingredients I mentioned.

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In contrast to the Stoics, the Epicureans showed little or no interest in politics and the community. "Live in seclusion !" was the advice of Epicurus. We could per-haps compare his "garden" with our present-day communes. There are many people in our own time who have sought a "safe harbor"--away from society.

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After Epicurus, many Epicureans developed an overemphasis on self-indulgence. Their motto was "Live for the moment!" The word "epicurean" is used in a negative sense nowadays to describe someone who lives only for pleasure. Neoplatonism As I showed you, Cynicism, Stoicism, and Epicureanism all had their roots in the teaching of Socrates. They also made use of certain of the pre-Socratics like Heraclitus and Democritus.

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But the most remarkable philosophic trend in the late Hellenistic period was first and foremost inspired by Plato’s philosophy. We therefore call it Neoplatonism.

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The most important figure in Neoplatonism was Plotinus (c. 205-270), who studied philosophy in Alexandria but later settled in Rome. It is interesting to note that he came from Alexandria, the city that had been the central meeting point for Greek philosophy and Oriental mysticism for several centuries. Plotinus brought with him to Rome a doctrine of salvation that was to compete seriously with Christianity when its time came. However, Neoplatonism also became a strong influence in mainstream Christian theology as well.

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Remember Plato’s doctrine of ideas, Sophie, and the way he distinguished between the world of ideas and the sensory world. This meant establishing a clear division between the soul and the body. Man thus became a dual creature: our body consisted of earth and dust like everything else in the sensory world, but we also had an immortal soul. This was widely believed by many Greeks long before Plato. Plotinus was also familiar with similar ideas from Asia.

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Plotinus believed that the world is a span between two poles. At one end is the divine light which he calls the One. Sometimes he calls it God. At the other end is absolute darkness, which receives none of the light from the One. But Plotinus’s point is that this darkness actually has no existence. It is simply the absence of light--in other words, it is not. All that exists is God, or the One, but in the same way that a beam of light grows progressively dimmer and is gradually extinguished, there is somewhere a point that the divine glow cannot reach.

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According to Plotinus, the soul is illuminated by the light from the One, while matter is the darkness that has no real existence. But the forms in nature have a faint glow of the One.

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Imagine a great burning bonfire in the night from which sparks fly in all directions. A wide radius of light from the bonfire turns night into day in the immediate area; but the glow from the fire is visible even from a distance of several miles. If we went even further away, we would be able to see a tiny speck of light like a far-off lantern in the dark, and if we went on moving away, at some point the light would not reach us. Somewhere the rays of light disappear into the night, and when it is completely dark we see nothing. There are neither shapes nor shadows.

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Imagine now that reality is a bonfire like this. That which is burning is God--and the darkness beyond is the cold matter that man and animals are made of. Closest to God are the eternal ideas which are the primal forms of all creatures. The human soul, above all, is a "spark from the fire." Yet everywhere in nature some of the divine light is shining. We can see it in all living creatures; even a rose or a bluebell has its divine glow. Furthest away from the living God are earth and water and stone.

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I am saying that there is something of the divine mystery in everything that exists. We can see it sparkle in a sunflower or a poppy. We sense more of this unfathomable mystery in a butterfly that flutters from a twig--or in a goldfish swimming in a bowl. But we are closest to God in our own soul. Only there can we become one with the great mystery of life. In truth, at very rare moments we can experience that we ourselves are that divine mystery.

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Plotinus’s metaphor is rather like Plato’s myth of the cave: the closer we get to the mouth of the cave, the closer we get to that which all existence springs from. But in contrast to Plato’s clear two-fold reality, Plotinus’s doctrine is characterized by an experience of wholeness. Everything is one--for everything is God. Even the shadows deep down in Plato’s cave have a faint glow of the One.

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On rare occasions in his life, Plotinus experienced a fusion of his soul with God. We usually call this a mystical experience. Plotinus is not alone in having had such experiences. People have told of them at all times and in all cultures. The details might be different, but the essential features are the same. Let us take a look at some of these features. Mysticism A mystical experience is an experience of merging with God or the "cosmic spirit." Many religions emphasize the gulf between God and Creation, but the mystic experiences no such gulf. He or she has experienced being "one with God" or "merging" with Him.

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The idea is that what we usually call "I" is not the true "I." In short glimpses we can experience an identification with a greater "I." Some mystics call it God, others call it the cosmic spirit, Nature, or the Universe. When the fusion happens, the mystic feels that he is "losing himself"; he disappears into God or is lost in God in the same way that a drop of water loses itself when it merges with the sea. An Indian mystic once expressed it in this way: "When I was, God was not. When God is, I am no more." The Christian mystic Angelus Silesius (1624-1677) put it another way: Every drop becomes the sea when it flows oceanward, just as at last the soul ascends and thus becomes the Lord.

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Now you might feel that it cannot be particularly pleasant to "lose oneself." I know what you mean. But the point is that what you lose is so very much less than what you gain. You lose yourself only in the form you have at the moment, but at the same time you realize that you are something much bigger. You are the universe. In fact, you are the cosmic spirit itself, Sophie. It is you who are God. If you have to lose yourself as Sophie Amundsen, you can take comfort in the knowledge that this "everyday I" is something you will lose one day anyway. Your real "I"-- which you can only experience if you are able to lose yourself--is, according to the mystics, like a mysterious fire that goes on burning to all eternity .

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But a mystical experience like this does not always come of itself. The mystic may have to seek the path of "purification and enlightenment" to his meeting with God. This path consists of the simple life and various meditation techniques. Then all at once the mystic achieves his goal, and can exclaim, "I am God" or "I am You."

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mystical trends are found in all the great world religions. And the descriptions of mystical experiences given by the mystics show a remarkable similarity across all cultural boundaries. It is in the mystic’s attempt to provide a religious or philosophic interpretation of the mystical experience that his cultural background reveals itself.

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In Western mysticism--that is, within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam--the mystic emphasizes that his meeting is with a personal God. Although God is present both in nature and in the human soul, he is also far above and beyond the world. In Eastern mysticism--that is, Hinduism, Buddhism , and Chinese religion--it is more usual to emphasize that the mystic experiences a total fusion with God or the "cosmic spirit."

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"I am the cosmic spirit," the mystic can exclaim, or "I am God." For God is not only present in the world; he has nowhere else to be.

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In India, especially, there have been strong mystical movements since long before the time of Plato. Swami Vivekenanda, an Indian who was instrumental in bringing Hinduism to the west, once said, "Just as certain world religions say that people who do not believe in a personal God outside themselves are atheists, we say that a person who does not believe in himself is an atheist

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. Not believing in the splendor of one’s own soul is what we call atheism

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."

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A mystical experience can also have ethical significance. A former president of India, Sarvepalli Radhak-rishnan, said once, "Love thy neighbor as thyself because you ore your neighbor. It is an illusion that makes you think that your neighbor is someone other than yourself."

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People of our own time who do not adhere to a particular religion also tell of mystical experiences. They have suddenly experienced something they have called "cosmic consciousness" or an "oceanic feeling." They have felt themselves wrenched out of Time and have experienced the world "from the perspective of eternity."

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Sophie sat up in bed. She had to feel whether she still had a body. As she read more and more about Plato and the mystics, she had begun to feel as though she were floating around in the room, out of the window and far off above the town. From there she had looked down on all the people in the square, and had floated on and on over the globe that was her home, over the North Sea and Europe, down over the Sahara and across the African savanna

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The whole world had become almost like a living person, and it felt as if that person were Sophie herself. The world is me, she thought. The great big universe that she had often felt to be unfathomable and terrifying--was her own "I." Now, too, the universe was enormous and majestic , but now it was herself who was so big.

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The extraordinary feeling was fleeting, but Sophie was sure she would never forget it. It felt as if something inside her had burst through her forehead and become merged with everything else, the way a drop of color can tint a whole jug of water.

114

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When it was all over, it was like waking up with a headache after a wonderful dream. Sophie registered with a touch of disillusionment that she had a body which was trying to sit up in bed. Lying on her stomach reading the pages from Alberto Knox had given her a backache. But she had experienced something unforgettable.

115

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Eventually she pulled herself together and stood up. The first thing she did was to punch holes in the pages and file them in her ring binder together with the other lessons. Then she .went into the garden.

116

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The birds were singing as if the world had just been born. The pale green of the birches behind the old rabbit hutches was so intense that it seemed as though the Creator had not yet finished blending the color.

117

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Could she really believe that everything was one divine "I"? Could she believe that she carried within her a soul that was a "spark from the fire"? If it was true, then she was truly a divine creature.

118

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