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苏菲的世界|Sophie’s World

苏格拉底|Socrates

属类： 双语小说 【分类】魔幻小说 -[作者: 乔斯坦·贾德] 阅读：[30781]
《 字+字- 行+行- 页+页- 字+字- 行+行- 页+页- 》
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……最聪明的是明白自己无知的人……

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苏菲穿上一件夏衣，匆匆下楼走进厨房。妈妈正站在桌子旁边。苏菲决定不提任何有关丝巾的事。

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她脱口而出：“你去拿报纸了吗？”

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妈妈转过身来。

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“你去帮我拿好吗？”

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苏菲飞也似地出了门，从石子路走到信箱旁。

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信箱里只有报纸。她想他大概不会这么快回信吧。在报纸的头版，她看到有关挪威联合国部队在黎巴嫩的消息。

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联合国部队……这不是席德的父亲寄来的卡片邮戳上盖的字样吗？但信上贴的却是挪威的邮票。也许挪威联合国部队的士兵拥有自己的邮局。

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苏菲回到厨房时，妈妈声音干涩地说：“你现在对报纸好像很有兴趣。”

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幸好当天吃早餐时及早餐过后，妈妈都没有再提到有关信箱的事情。当妈妈出去买东西时，苏菲将那封关于命运的信拿到密洞去。

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当她看到她存放哲学家来信的饼干盒旁边放着一个白色的小信封时，不禁吓了一跳。她很肯定不是她放的。

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这封信的边缘同样有点潮湿，此外信封上还有两三个很深的洞，就像她昨天收到的那封一样。

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难道哲学家来过了吗？他知道她的密洞吗？这封信为什么湿湿的？这些问题把她弄得头昏脑胀。她打开信封来看：

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亲爱的苏菲：

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我读你的信读得津津有味，不过却有些后悔。遗憾的是，有关共进咖啡的事，我恐怕要让你失望了。总有一天我们会见面的，但可能要等很久我才能亲自到船长弯来。

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我必须加上一点，从今以后，我将不能亲自送信了。因为长此下去，风险太大。以后这些信将由我的小小使者送来，同时将会直接送到花园的密洞中。

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有必要时，你可以再和我联络。当你想这样做时，请把一块饼干或糖放在一个粉红色的信封里。我的使者拿到后，会直接送来给我。

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P．S：拒绝一个小淑女共进咖啡的邀请并不是一件令人很愉快的事，但有时我不得不这样做。

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又，如果你在某处看到一条红色的丝巾，请加以保管。那样的东西常常会被人拿错，尤其是在学校等地，而我们这儿又是一所哲学学校。

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艾伯特敬上

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苏菲今年十四岁。这十四年间她曾接过许多的信，尤其是在圣诞节以及她的生日时。但这封信恐怕是其中最奇怪的一封了。

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信上没贴邮票，甚至也不曾放进信箱中，而是直接送到苏菲在老树篱中最秘密藏身之处的。还有，在这样一个干爽的春日里，这封信何以会弄湿，也很令人费解。

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当然，最奇怪的还是有关那条丝巾的事。这位哲学家一定还有另外一个学生，而这个学生掉了一条红色的丝巾，一定是这样。不过她怎么会把它掉在苏菲的床底下呢？

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还有，艾伯特是一个名字吗？

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不过有一件事是可以肯定的；这位哲学家与席德之间有某种关系，不过席德的父亲却把她们两人的地址搞错了，这实在是令人难以理解的事。

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苏菲坐了很久，想着席德和她之间到底有什么关系。最后，她叹了口气，决定放弃。哲学家曾经说过有一天他会跟她见面。也许她也会见到席德。

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她把信纸翻过来，发现背后也写了几行字：

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是否有人天生就很害羞呢？

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最聪明的是明白自己无知的人。

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真正的智慧来自内心。

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明辨是非者必能进退合宜。

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苏菲已经知道白信封内的这些短句是哲学家给她的功课，目的要让她做好准备，以便阅读不久后会送来的大信封。这时她突然想起了一件事。如果那位“使者”会把棕色的大信封送到密洞这儿来，她大可以坐在这里等他。(也许是“她”？)她一定会缠着那人，要他(或她)透露哲学家的一些底细。信上说，这个使者很小。会是个孩子吗？

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“是否有人天生就很害羞呢？”

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苏菲知道害羞就是难为情，例如因为光着身子被人瞧见而不好意思。但因为这样的事而觉得难为情是很自然的反应吗？在她认为，如果某件事情很自然，那每个人做它的时候都应该觉得很自然。在世界上许多地方，赤身露体是很自然的事。因此一定是一个社会决定你能做什么、不能做什么。在奶奶年轻时，女人做日光浴是绝对不可以的。然而今天，大多数人都认为这样做很“自然”，虽然这种行为在许多国家还是严格禁止的。苏菲抓了抓头。难道这就是哲学？

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第二个句子是“最聪明的是明白自己无知的人”。

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这是怎么比较的呢？如果哲学家的意思是，那些明白自己并不知道太阳底下每一件事的人，比那些知道不多，却自认懂得很多的人要聪明，她还比较可以同意。苏菲过去从来没有想过这件事，但她愈想就愈明白：知道自己无知，也是一种知识。她所见过最愚蠢的人，就是那些对某些自己一无所知的事自信满满的人。

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再下面一句：“真正的智慧来自内心”。不过在某个阶段，所有的知识一定得从外面进入人的脑袋吧？但从另外一方面来说，苏菲记得有些时候她对妈妈或学校老师教她的事充耳不闻，而她真正学到的知识则或多或少是自己想出来的。有时候她也会突然间领悟一些事情。这也许就是人们所谓的“智慧”吧！

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嗯，到目前为止都还不错。苏菲心想，前面这三个问题她答的都算可以。但接下来这句话实在太奇怪了，她不禁莞尔：“明辨是非者必能进退合宜。”

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这是不是说一个强盗抢银行是因为他不能辨别是非？她可不这么想。

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相反的，她认为无论孩童还是成人有时总是会干一些傻事，之后可能会后悔，这正是因为他们在做事时不依照自己理性的判断所致。

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当她坐在那儿思考时，听见树篱靠近树林那一边的干枯灌木丛中有某个东西正沙沙作响。使者来了吗？她的心开始怦怦地跳。

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然后她愈来愈害怕地发现，那个正朝她走来的东西居然发出像动物喘息一般的声音。

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说时迟，那时快，一只猎狗钻进了密洞。

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它口中衔着一个棕色的大信封，随后便将信丢在苏菲的脚跟前。事情发生得太快了，以致苏菲来不及有什么反应。下一秒钟，她发现自己坐在那儿，手里拿着那个大信封，而那只金黄色的狗已经一溜烟跑回树林里去了。

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苏菲愣了一会儿才回过神来。她把手放在膝盖上开始哭泣。

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她就这样坐了好一会儿，忘记了时间。

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然后她突然抬起头。

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原来这就是他所说的使者。她叹了一口气，如释重负。难怪那些白色信封的边缘会有些潮湿并且有洞了。她怎么没有想到呢？无怪乎哲学家会要她在写信给他时，在信封里放一块饼干或糖了。

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她也许并不像她自认的那样聪明。但谁会想到送信的使者居然是一只受过训练的狗呢？这还真有点不寻常呢！现在她可别想从送信使者那儿盘问出艾伯特的行踪了。

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苏菲打开大信封，开始看了起来。

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雅典的哲学

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亲爱的苏菲：当你看到这封信时，可能已经遇见汉密士了。

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如果你还没遇见，我可以先告诉你它是一只狗。不过你不用担心。它是一只性情很温和的狗，智商也比许多人要高得多，而且它从来不会试图假装聪明。

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你可能也已经发现，它的名字其实是有意义的。

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在希腊神话中，汉密士(Hermes)是为天神送信的使者，也是航海人的神。不过我们现在且不谈这个。更重要的是，从Hermes衍生了Hermetic这个字。它的意思是“隐藏的”或“无法接近的”。

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从汉密士小心不让我俩见面的这个角度来看，这个名字不是颇为恰当吗？

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好了，我们的送信使者终于出场了。不用说，你叫它的名字它就会答应，而且它非常乖。

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现在我们还是来谈哲学吧！我们已经完成第一部分了。我曾提到自然派的哲学理论以及人类后来完全摒弃神话式世界观的事。现在我们要谈谈三位伟大的古典派哲学家：苏格拉底、柏拉图与亚理斯多德。这三位哲学家各自以不同的方式影响了整个欧洲文明。

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自然派的哲学家也被称为“苏格拉底之前的哲学家”，因为他们生在苏格拉底之前。德谟克里特斯虽然死于苏格拉底数年之后，但他所有的想法都属于苏格拉底之前的自然派哲学。无论就时间或空间而言，苏格拉底都代表了一个新的时代。他是第一个在雅典诞生的伟大哲学家，他和他的两位传人都在雅典生活、工作。你也许还记得安纳萨哥拉斯以前也曾经在雅典住过一段时间，但后来因为他宣称太阳只是一块红热的石头而被驱逐出境。苏格拉底的遭遇也好不了多少。

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自从苏格拉底之后，雅典成为希腊文化的中心。我们要注意的是，在哲学理论从自然派演变到苏格拉底学说的过程中，哲学课题的性质也有了改变。但在我们谈到苏格拉底之前，先让我们来听一听所谓“诡辩学派”的学说。这一派的哲学家是苏格拉底时代雅典的主流学派。

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哲学史就像一出分成许多幕的戏剧。注意，苏菲，现在舞台上的布幕就要升起了。

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以人为中心

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从大约公元前45O年左右起，雅典成了希腊王国的文化中心。从此以后，哲学走上了一个新的方向。

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自然派的哲学家关切的主题是自然世界的本质，这使得他们在科学史上占了很重要的一席之地。而雅典的哲学家的兴趣主要在个人本身与每个人在社会的地位。当时，一个拥有人民议会与法庭等机构的民主制度正在雅典逐渐成形。

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为了使民主能够运作，人民必须接受足够的教育以参与民主的进程。在现代，我们也看到新兴的民主国家如何需要开启民智。

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当时的雅典人认为，最重要的事就是要精通演说术，也就是说要能够用令人信服的方式来表达自己的看法。

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这时，有一群四处游历的教师与哲学家从希腊各殖民地来到了雅典。他们自称为哲士或智者(SopLists)。Sophist这个字原来指的是一个有智慧而且博学的人(按：一般贬称为诡辩学家)。这些诡辩学家在雅典以教导市民为生。

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诡辩学家与自然派哲学家有一个共通点，那就是：他们都批评传统的神话。但诡辩学家不屑于从事在他们眼中了无益处的哲学性思考。他们的看法是：虽然哲学问题或许有答案，但人类永远不可能揭开大自然及宇宙之谜。在哲学上，类似这样的看法被称为：“怀疑论”。

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诡辩学家认为，我们虽然无法知道所有自然之谜的答案，却可以肯定人类必须学习如何共同生活。因此，他们宁愿关心个人在社会中的地位的问题。

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诡辩学家普罗塔哥拉斯(Protagoras，约公元前485一公元前41O年)曾说过：“人是衡量一切的尺度。”他的意思是：一件事情是对是错、是好是坏，完全要看它与人类的需求有何关系而定。

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当有人问他是否相信希腊的诸神时，他答道：“这个问题太复杂，而生命又太短促了。”一个无法确定世上是否有神的人，我们称他为“不可知论者”。

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这批诡辩学家多半都是一些游遍各地、见过不同政治制度的人。在他们到过的各个城邦中，无论传统规范或地方法律可能都各不相同。这使得那些诡辩学家不禁质疑哪些事物是与生俱来，而哪些事物又是社会环境造成的。就这样，他们播下了雅典城邦内社会批评的种子。

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例如，他们指出，像“天生害羞”这样的说法并不一定成立，因为假使害羞是一种“天生”的性格，那一定是人一出生就有的，是一种出于内在的品格。但是，苏菲，害羞的个性果真是天生的吗？还是由社会环境造成的？对于某个已经游遍世界的人来说，答案应该很简单：害怕展露自己赤裸的身体并非“自然”的，也不是天生的。

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害羞——或不害羞——最主要还是受到社会规范的制约所致。

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你应该想象得到，这批游历四方的诡辩学家宣称，世间没有绝对的是非标准，这种说法在雅典会造成多么激烈的争议。

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相反的，苏格拉底则试图证明此类的规范事实上不容置疑，而且是放诸四海皆准的。

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苏格拉底是谁？

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苏格拉底(公元前47O～公元前399年)也许是整个哲学史上最神秘难解的人物。他从未留下任何文字，但却是对欧洲思想影响最重大的人物之一。而这并不全然是因为他后来戏剧性的结束了生命的缘故。

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我们知道苏格拉底生于雅典。他有生之年大半时间都在市中心广场与市场等地与他遇见的人闲谈。他说：“乡野的树木不能教我任何东西。”有时他也会连续好几小时站着思想、发呆。

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即使在当时，他也被视为谜样的人物，但他死后很快就被誉为许多哲学学派的始祖。正因为他神秘难解、模棱两可，才使得一些在学说上大相径庭的学派都可以宣称他们是苏格拉底的传人。

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我们现在可以确知的是：苏格拉底长得很丑。他肚大、眼凸，有个狮子鼻。但据说他的性情“极为和蔼可亲”，也有人说他是“古今无人能及”的人物。尽管如此，他还是因为他从事的哲学活动而被判处死刑。

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我们之所以能够得知苏格拉底的生平，主要是透过柏拉图的著作。柏拉图是苏格拉底的学生，后来也成为古往今来最伟大的哲学家之一。

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柏拉图曾撰写过几本《对话录》，以类似戏剧对白来讨论哲学，而苏格拉底就是其中的主要人物与代言人。

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由于柏拉图在书中是透过苏格拉底之口来阐扬自己的哲学，因此我们无法确定对话录中苏格拉底说的话是否确是苏格拉底本人说的。因此，要区分苏格拉底的学说与柏拉图的哲学并不容易。这也是我们面临其他许多未曾留下撰述的历史人物时遭遇的难题。最典型的例子当然是耶稣了。

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我们无法确定当年的耶稣是否讲过马太福音或路加福音上记载的话。同样的，苏格拉底本人究竟说过些什么话，将会一直是历史上的谜团。

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不过，苏格拉底的真正面貌其实并不那么重要。因为近两千五百年来对西方思想家产生启发作用的，事实上是柏拉图描绘出来的苏格拉底。

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谈话的艺术

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苏格拉底的高明之处在于他与人谈话时看来并无意要指导别人。事实上他给人的印象是他很想从那些与他谈话的人身上学到一些东西。所以，他并不像传统的学校教师那般讲课，而是与别人进行讨论。

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如果他纯粹只是倾听别人说话，那他显然不会成为一个著名的哲学家，也不会被判处死刑。不过，话说回来，他所做的也只不过是提出问题而已，尤其是在刚开始与人谈话时，仿佛他一无所知似的。通常在讨论过程中，他会设法使他的对手承认自己理论上的弱点。最后，到了词穷之际，他们也不得不认清是非与对错。

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苏格拉底的母亲是一位产婆。苏格拉底也常说他的谈话艺术就像为人接生一样。产婆本身并不是生孩子的人，她只是帮忙接生而已。同样的，苏格拉底认为他的工作就是帮助人们“生出”正确的思想，因为真正的知识来自内心，而不是得自别人的传授。同时，唯有出自内心的知识，才能使人拥有真正的智慧。

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说得更明白些：生小孩的能力是与生俱来的。同样的，每一个人只要运用本身的常识，就可以领悟哲学的真理。所谓运用本身的常识就是搜寻自己的内心，运用内心的智慧。

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借着假装无知的方式，苏格拉底强迫他所遇见的人们运用本身的常识。这种装傻、装呆的方式，我们称为“苏格拉底式的反讽”。

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这使得他能够不断揭露人们思想上的弱点。即使在市区广场的中心，他也照做不误。于是，对于某些人而言，与苏格拉底谈话无异于当众出丑并成为众人的笑柄。

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因此我们不难理解为何当时的人愈来愈将苏格拉底视为眼中钉，尤其是那些在地方上有头有脸的人。据说，苏格拉底曾说：“雅典就像一匹驽马，而我就是一只不断叮它，让它具有活力的牛蝇。”

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“我们是怎样对付牛蝇的？苏菲，你可以告诉我吗？”

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神圣的声音

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苏格拉底之所以不断地像牛蝇般叮他的同胞，并不是想折磨他们。而是他内心有某种声音让他非如此做不可。他总是说他的心中有“神明指引”。举例说，他不愿伙同众人将他人判处死罪，也不愿打政敌的小报告。这终于使他丧失性命。

97
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在公元前三九九年时，他被控“宣扬新的神明，腐化青年人”。

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在五百名陪审团员的投票之下，他以些微的票数之差被定罪。

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他大可以恳求陪审团手下留情，或至少可以同意离开雅典，借以免于一死。

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然而，如果他这样做，他就不是苏格拉底了。问题在于他重视他的良心——与真理——更甚于生命。他向陪审团保证他过去所作所为全是为了国家的福祉。然而他们还是要他服毒。不久，苏格拉底就当着友人的面喝下毒药，结束了生命。

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为什么？苏菲，为什么苏格拉底非死不可？两千四百年来人们不断问着这个问题。然而，他并不是历史上唯一坚持不肯妥协，最后落得被定罪处死的人。

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我曾经提过的耶稣就是其中之一。事实上，苏格拉底与耶稣之间还有若干极为相似之处。

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他们两人都是谜样的人物，即使对于与他们同时代的人也是如此。他们都没有将他们的学说教诲撰写成书，因此我们只好透过他们门徒的描写来认识他们。不过可以肯定的是，他们两个都是通晓谈话艺术的专家。他们说起话来都充满自信、侃侃而谈，虽然引人入胜，但也可能会得罪别人。此外，他们都相信自己是某一种更高力量的代言人。他们批评各种形式的不公不义与腐败现象，向地方势力挑战，最后并因此丧命。

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耶稣与苏格拉底所受的审判显然也有雷同之处。

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他们原本都可以求饶，但他们却都觉得如果不成仁取义，就无法完成他们的使命。而由于他们如此从容就义，所以吸引了许多徒众追随，即使在他们死后仍然如此。

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我指出这些相似之处并不是说耶稣与苏格拉底相像。我只是要提醒你注意，他们所要传达的信息与他们个人的勇气是密不可分的。

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雅典的小丑

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苏菲，接下来我们还是要谈苏格拉底。我们刚才已经谈到他所使用的方法，但他的哲学课题又是什么？

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苏格拉底与那些诡辩学家生在同一时代。他就像他们一样，比较关心个人与他在社会中的位置，对于大自然的力量较不感兴趣。

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就像几百年后罗马哲学家西塞罗所说的，苏格拉底“将哲学从天上召唤下来，使它在各地落脚生根，并进入各个家庭，还迫使它审视生命、伦理与善恶”。

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不过，苏格拉底有一点与诡辩学派不同，而这点很重要。他并不认为自己是个“智者”，即博学或聪明的人。他也不像诡辩学家一样，为赚钱而教书。不，苏格拉底称自己为“哲学家”，而他也的确是一位真正的哲学家，因为哲学家的英文philo—sopher，这个字的意思是“一个爱好智慧的人”。

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苏菲，你现在坐得舒服吗？你必须完全了解“智者”与“哲学家”之间的差异，这样我们才能继续上以后的课程。诡辩学家教人道理，并收取学费，而他们所说的道理或多或少都有吹毛求疵的意味。这样的诡辩学家千百年来不知有多少。我指的是所有的学校教师、那些自以为无所不知而以既有的一丁点知识为满足的人，以及那些自夸博学多闻但实际上一无所知的人。你年纪虽小，但或许已经遇见过几位这样的诡辩学家。一个真正的哲学家则完全不同，事实上他们与诡辩学家正好相反。他们知道实际上自己所知十分有限，这也是为何他们不断追求真知灼见的原因。苏格拉底就是这些稀有人物之一。他知道自己对生命与世界一无所知，并对自己贫乏的知识感到相当懊恼。这点非常重要。

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所以说，所谓哲学家就是那些领悟到自己有很多事情并不知道，并因此而感到苦恼的人。就这一方面而言，他们还是比那些自称博学但实际上非常无知的人更聪明。我曾经说过：“最聪明的是明白自己无知的人。”苏格拉底也说：“我只知道一件事，就是我一无所知。”

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请你记住这句话，因为很难得有人会承认自己无知，即使哲学家也不例外。最重要的是，当众说这句话是很危险的，可能会使你丧命。最具颠覆性的人就是那些提出问题的人，而回答问题则比较不危险。任何一个问题都可能比一千个答案要更具爆炸性。

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你是否听说过国王的新衣这个故事？故事中的国王其实浑身一丝不挂，但他的臣民却没有人敢说出真相。这时，一个小孩突然脱口而出：“可是他什么衣服都没穿呀！”苏菲，这个孩子很勇敢，就像苏格拉底一样。苏格拉底也敢于告诉我们人类所知多么有限。哲学家与小孩子的相似性我们已经谈过了。

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确切来说，人类面临了许多难解的问题，而我们对这些问题还没有找到满意的答案。因此现在我们面临两种可能：一个是假装拥有所有的知识，借此自欺欺人。另一个则是闭上眼睛，从此不去理会，并放弃一切我们迄今所有的成就。就这方面而言，人类的意见并不一致。人们通常不是太过笃定，就是漠不关心(这两种人都是在兔子的毛皮深处蠕动的虫子)。苏菲，这就像切牌一样。你把黑牌放在一堆，红牌放在一堆，但不时会有小丑牌出现。他们既不是红桃也不是黑桃，既不是方块也不是梅花。在雅典，苏格拉底就像是小丑一样。他既不笃定也不漠然。他只知道自己一无所知，而这使他非常苦恼。因此他成为一个哲学家，一个孜孜不倦追求真理，永不放弃的人。

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据说，一个雅典人问戴尔菲的神谕：“谁是雅典最聪明的人？”

118
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神谕回答说：“在所有的凡人中，苏格拉底是最聪明的。”苏格拉底听到这件事时，大为震惊(苏菲，我想他一定曾经放声大笑)。他直接去找城内公认聪明出众的一个人问问题。但是当此人也无法给他一个满意的答案时，苏格拉底便知道神谕是对的。

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苏格拉底认为人类必须为自己的知识奠定巩固的基础，他相信这个基础就是人的理性。由于他对人的理性具有不可动摇的信念，因此他显然是一个理性主义者。

120
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正确的见解导致正确的行动

121
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正如我先前讲过的，苏格拉底声称他受到内心一个神圣声音的指引，同时他的“良心”也告诉他什么是对的。他说：“知善者必能行善。”

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他的意思是人只要有正确的见解，就会采取正确的行动。也唯有行所当行的人才能成为一个“有德之人”。我们之所以犯错，是因为我们不知道何者是对的。这是人何以必须不断学习的原因。苏格拉底想为是非对错找出一个清楚明白，而且放诸四海皆准的定义。他与那些诡辩家不同的是，他相信辨别是非的能力就存在于人的理性中，而不存在于社会中。

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你，也许会认为最后一部分有些大过含糊。让我们这样说好了：苏格拉底认为，人如果违反自己的理性就不会快乐。而那些知道如何找到快乐的人就会遵照自己的理性行事。因此，明白是非者必然不会为恶。因为世间哪有人会想要成为一个不快乐的人？

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你怎么想呢？苏菲。如果你一直做一些自己深知不对的事，你还会活得很快乐吗？有很多人撒谎、舞弊、中伤别人，而他们本身也深深明白这些行为是不对或不公平的。你想这些人会快乐吗？

125
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苏菲看完有关苏格拉底的信后，匆匆将信放在饼干盒内便爬出密洞。她想在妈妈买菜回家前进门，以免妈妈啰哩啰唆地盘问她的行踪。再说，苏菲答应要帮妈妈洗碗。

126
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苏菲刚在碗槽里放满水，妈妈就提着两个大袋子，跌跌撞撞地走进来了。也许是因为这样，妈妈才说：“苏菲，最近你很心不在焉。”

127
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苏菲也不知道自己是怎么回事，脱口就说：“苏格拉底也是这样啊！”

128
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“苏格拉底？”

129
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妈妈睁大眼睛看着她。

130
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“他因此而非死不可，这真是太悲哀了。”苏菲悠悠地说。

131
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“天哪！苏菲，我真不知道该怎么办才好！”

132
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“苏格拉底也是。他只知道自己一无所知，然而他却是雅典最聪明的人。”

133
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妈妈差点说不出话来。最后，她说：“这是你在学校里学到的吗？”

134
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苏菲用力摇摇头：“我们在那儿什么也学不到。教师和哲学家的不同之处在于老师自认为懂得很多，并且强迫我们吸收。哲学家则是与学生一起寻求答案。”

135
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“瞧，现在我们又回到兔子的问题了。苏菲，我要你告诉我你的男朋友究竟是谁。要不然我会认为他脑筋有点问题。”

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苏菲转过身来，背对着碗槽，手拿着一块洗碗布指着妈妈：“脑筋有问题的可不是他。不过他喜欢让别人伤一伤脑筋，让他们脱离窠臼。”

137
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“够了！我看他有点目中无人。”

138
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苏菲转回身去。

139
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“他既不是目中无人，也不是目中有人，他只是努力追寻真正的智慧。一个真正的小丑和其他纸牌是大不相同的。”

140
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“你是说小丑吗？”

141
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苏菲点点头。“你有没有想过一副牌里面有很多红心和方块，也有很多黑桃和梅花，但只有一个小丑。”

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“天哪！你看你多会顶嘴。”

143
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“你看你问的什么问题嘛！”

144
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妈妈已经把买来的东西都放好了，于是她拿着报纸走进起居室。苏菲感到，她今天关门的声音比平常都大。

145
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苏菲洗完碗后，就上楼回到自己的房间。

146
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她已经把那条红色的丝巾和积木一起放在衣柜的上层。现在她把丝巾拿了下来，仔细地看。

147
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席德……

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wisest is she who knows she does not know

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Sophie put on a summer dress and hurried down to the kitchen. Her mother was standing by the kitchen table. Sophie decided not to say anything about the silk scarf.

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"Did you bring in the newspaper?" she asked.

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Her mother turned.

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"Would you get it for me?"

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Sophie was out of the door in a flash, down the gravel path to the mailbox.

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Only the newspaper. She couldn’t expect an answer so soon, she supposed. On the front page of the paper she read something about the Norwegian UN battalion in Lebanon.

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The UN battalion ... wasn’t that the postmark on the card from Hilde’s father? But the postage stamp had been Norwegian. Maybe the Norwegian UN soldiers had their own post office with them.

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"You’ve become very interested in the newspaper," said her mother drily when Sophie returned to the kitchen.

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Luckily her mother said no more about mailboxes and stuff, either during breakfast or later on that day. When she went shopping, Sophie took her letter about Fate down to the den .

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She was surprised to see a little white envelope beside the cookie tin with the other letters from the philosopher. Sophie was quite sure she had not put it there.

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This envelope was also wet around the edges. And it had a couple of deep holes in it, just like the one she had received yesterday.

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Had the philosopher been here? Did he know about her secret hiding place? Why was the envelope wet?

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All these questions made her head spin. She opened the letter and read the note:

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Dear Sophie, I read your letter with great interest-- and not without some regret. I must unfortunately disappoint you with regard to the invitation. We shall meet one day, but it will probably be quite a while before I can come in person to Captain’s Bend.

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I must add that from now on I will no longer be able to deliver the letters personally. It would be much too risky in the long run. In the future, letters will be delivered by my little messenger. On the other hand, they will be brought directly to the secret place in the garden.

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You may continue to contact me whenever you feel the need. When you do, put a pink envelope out with a cookie or a lump of sugar in it. When the messenger finds it, he will bring it straight to me.

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P.S. It is not pleasant to decline a young lady’s invitation to coffee, but sometimes it is a matter of necessity.

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P.P.S. If you should come across a red silk scarf anywhere, please take care of it. Sometimes personal property gets mixed up. Especially at school and places like that, and this is a philosophy school.

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Yours, Alberto Knox Sophie had lived for almost fifteen years, and had received quite a lot of letters in her young life, at least at Christmas and on birthdays. But this letter was the strangest one she had ever received.

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It had no postage stamp. It hadn’t even been put in the mailbox. It had been brought straight to Sophie’s top-secret hideout in the old hedge. The fact that it was wet in the dry spring weather was also most mystifying.

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The strangest thing of all was the silk scarf, of course. The philosopher must have another pupil. That was it. And this other pupil had lost a red silk scarf. Right. But how had she managed to lose it under Sophie’s bed?

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And Alberto Knox  what kind of a name was that?

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One thing was confirmed--the connection between the philosopher and Hilde Moller Knag. But that Hilde’s own father was now confusing their addresses--that was completely incomprehensible.

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Sophie sat for a long time thinking about what connection there could possibly be between Hilde and herself. Finally she gave up. The philosopher had written that she would meet him one day. Perhaps she would meet Hilde too.

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She turned the letter over. She now saw that there were some sentences written on the back as well:

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Is there such a thing as natural modesty ?

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Wisest is she who knows she does not know...

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True insight comes from within.

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He who knows what is right will do right.

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Sophie knew that the short sentences that came in the white envelopes were intended to prepare her for the next big envelope, which would arrive shortly thereafter. She suddenly had an idea. If the "messenger" came to the den to deliver a brown envelope, Sophie could simply sit and wait for him. Or was it a her? She would definitely hang on to whoever it was until he or she told her more about the philosopher! The letter said that the "messenger" was little. Could it be a child? "Is there such a thing as natural modesty?" Sophie knew that "modesty" was an old-fashioned word for shyness--for example, about being seen naked. But was it really natural to be embarrassed about that? If something was natural, she supposed, it was the same for everybody. In many parts of the world it was completely natural to be naked. So it must be society that decides what you can and can’t do. When Grandma was young you certainly couldn’t sunbathe topless. But today, most people think it is "natural," even though it is still strictly forbidden in lots of countries. Was this philosophy? Sophie wondered.

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The next sentence was: "Wisest is she who knows she does not know."

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Wiser than who? If the philosopher meant that someone who realized that she didn’t know everything under the sun was wiser than someone who knew just a little, but who thought she knew a whole lot--well, that wasn’t so difficult to agree with. Sophie had never thought about it before. But the more she did, the more clearly she saw that knowing what you don’t know is also a kind of knowledge. The stupidest thing she knew was for people to act like they knew all about things they knew absolutely nothing about.

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The next sentence was about true insight coming from within. But didn’t all knowledge come into people’s heads from the outside? On the other hand, Sophie could remember situations when her mother or the teachers at school had tried to teach her something that she hadn’t been receptive to. And whenever she had really learned something, it was when she had somehow contributed to it herself. Now and then, even, she would suddenly understand a thing she’d drawn a total blank on before. That was probably what people meant by "insight."

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So far, so good. Sophie thought she had done reasonably well on the first three questions. But the next statement was so odd she couldn’t help smiling: "He who knows what is right will do right."

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Did that mean that when a bank robber robbed a bank it was because he didn’t know any better? Sophie didn’t think so.

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On the contrary, she thought that both children and adults did stupid things that they probably regretted afterwards, precisely because they had done them against their better judgment .

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While she sat thinking, she heard something rustling in the dry undergrowth on the other side of the hedge nearest the woods. Could it be the messenger? Her heart started beating faster. It sounded like a panting animal was coming.

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The next moment a big Labrador pushed its way into the den.

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In its mouth it held a big brown envelope which it dropped at Sophie’s feet. It all happened so quickly that Sophie had no time to react. A second later she was sitting with the big envelope in her hands--and the golden Labrador had scampered off into the woods again.

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Once it was all over she reacted. She started to cry.

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She sat like that for a while, losing all sense of time.

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Then she looked up suddenly.

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So that was his famous messenger! Sophie breathed a sigh of relief. Of course that was why the white envelopes were wet around the edges and had holes in them. Why hadn’t she thought of it? Now it made sense to put a cookie or a lump of sugar in the envelope when she wrote to the philosopher.

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She may not always have been as smart as she would like, but who could have guessed that the messenger was a trained dog! It was a bit out of the ordinary, to put it mildly! She could certainly forget all about forcing the messenger to reveal Alberto Knox’s whereabouts.

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Sophie opened the big envelope and began to read.

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THE PHILOSOPHY OF ATHENS Dear Sophie, When you read this you may already have met Hermes. In case you haven’t, I’ll add that he is a dog. But don’t worry. He is very good-tempered--and moreover, a good deal more intelligent than a lot of people. In any event he never tries to give the impression of being cleverer than he is.

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You may also note that his name is not without significance.

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In Greek mythology , Hermes was the messenger of the gods. He was also the god of seafarers, but we shall not bother about that, at least not for the moment. It is more important that Hermes also gave his name to the word "hermetic," which means hidden or inaccessible--not inappropriate for the way Hermes takes care to keep the two of us hidden from each other.

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So the messenger has herewith been introduced. Naturally he answers to his name and is altogether very well behaved.

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But to return to philosophy. We have already completed the first part of the course. I refer to the natural philosophers and their decisive break with the mytholog-ical world picture. Now we are going to meet the three great classical philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Each in his own way, these philosophers influenced the whole of European civilization.

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The natural philosophers are also called the pre-Socratics, because they lived before Socrates. Although Democritus died some years after Socrates, all his ideas belong to pre-Socratic natural philosophy. Socrates represents a new era, geographically as well as temporally. He was the first of the great philosophers to be born in Athens, and both he and his two successors lived and worked there. You may recall that Anaxagoras also lived in Athens for a while but was hounded out because he said the sun was a red-hot stone. (Socrates fared no better!)

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From the time of Socrates, Athens was the center of Greek culture. It is also important to note the change of character in the philosophical project itself as it pro-gresses from natural philosophy to Socrates. But before we meet Socrates, let us hear a little about the so-called Sophists, who dominated the Athenian scene at the time of Socrates.

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Curtain up, Sophie! The history of ideas is like a drama in many acts.

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Man at the CenterAfter about 450 B.C., Athens was the cultural center of the Greek world. From this time on, philosophy took a new direction. The natural philosophers had been mainly concerned with the nature of the physical world. This gives them a central position in the history of science. In Athens, interest was now focused on the individual and the individual’s place in society. Gradually a democracy evolved, with popular assemblies and courts of law.

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In order for democracy to work, people had to be educated enough to take part in the democratic process. We have seen in our own time how a young democracy needs popular enlightenment. For the Athenians, it was first and foremost essential to master the art of rhetoric , which means saying things in a convincing manner.

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A group of itinerant teachers and philosophers from the Greek colonies flocked to Athens. They called themselves Sophists. The word "sophist" means a wise and informed person. In Athens, the Sophists made a living out of teaching the citizens for money.

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The Sophists had one characteristic in common with the natural philosophers: they were critical of the traditional mythology. But at the same time the Sophists rejected what they regarded as fruitless philosophical speculation . Their opinion was that although answers to philosophical questions may exist, man cannot know the truth about the riddles of nature and of the universe. In philosophy a view like this is called skepticism.

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But even if we cannot know the answers to all of nature’s riddles, we know that people have to learn to live together. The Sophists chose to concern themselves with man and his place in society.

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"Man is the measure of all things," said the Sophist Protagoras (c. 485-410 B.C.). By that he meant that the question of whether a thing is right or wrong, good or bad, must always be considered in relation to a person’s needs. On being asked whether he believed in the Greek gods, he answered, "The question is complex and life is short." A person who is unable to say categorically whether or not the gods or God exists is called an agnostic.

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The Sophists were as a rule men who had traveled widely and seen different forms of government. Both conventions and local laws in the city-states could vary widely. This led the Sophists to raise the question of what was natural and what was socially induced. By doing this, they paved the way for social criticism in the city-state of Athens.

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They could for example point out that the use of an expression like "natural Modesty" is not always defensible, for if it is "natural" to be modest, it must be something you are born with, something innate . But is it really innate, Sophie--or is it socially induced? To someone who has traveled the world, the answer should be simple: It is not "natural"--or innate--to be afraid to show yourself naked. Modesty--or the lack of it--is first and foremost a matter of social convention.

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As you can imagine, the wandering Sophists created bitter wrangling in Athens by pointing out that there were no absolute norms for what was right or wrong.

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Socrates, on the other hand, tried to show that some such norms are in fact absolute and universally valid .

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Who Was Socrates?

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Socrates (470-399 B.C.) is possibly the most enigmatic figure in the entire history of philosophy. He never wrote a single line. Yet he is one of the philosophers who has had the greatest influence on European thought, not least because of the dramatic manner of his death.

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We know he was born in Athens, and that he spent most of his life in the city squares and marketplaces talking with the people he met there. "The trees in the countryside can teach me nothing," he said. He could also stand lost in thought for hours on end.

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Even during his lifetime he was considered somewhat enigmatic, and fairly soon after his death he was held to be the founder of any number of different philosophical schools of thought. The very fact that he was so enigmatic and ambiguous made it possible for widely differing schools of thought to claim him as their own.

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We know for a certainty that he was extremely ugly. He was potbellied, and had bulging eyes and a snub nose. But inside he was said to be " perfectly delightful

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." It was also said of him that "You can seek him in the present, you can seek him in the past, but you will never find his equal." Nevertheless he was sentenced to death for his philosophical activities.

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The life of Socrates is mainly known to us through the writings of Plato, who was one of his pupils and who became one of the greatest philosophers of all time. Plato wrote a number of Dialogues, or dramatized discussions on philosophy, in which he uses Socrates as his principal character and mouthpiece.

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Since Plato is putting his own philosophy in Socrates’ mouth, we cannot be sure that the words he speaks in the dialogues were ever actually uttered by him. So it is no easy matter to distinguish between the teachings of Socrates and the philosophy of Plato. Exactly the same problem applies to many other historical persons who left no written accounts. The classic example, of course, is Jesus. We cannot be certain that the "historical" Jesus actually spoke the words that Matthew or Luke ascribed to him. Similarly, what the "historical" Socrates actually said will always be shrouded in mystery.

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But who Socrates "really" was is relatively unimportant. It is Plato’s portrait of Socrates that has inspired thinkers in the Western world for nearly 2,500 years.

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The Art of Discourse The essential nature of Socrates’ art lay in the fact that he did not appear to want to instruct people. On the contrary he gave the impression of one desiring to learn from those he spoke with. So instead of lecturing like a traditional schoolmaster, he discussed.

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Obviously he would not have become a famous philosopher had he confined himself purely to listening to others. Nor would he have been sentenced to death. But he just asked questions, especially to begin a conversation, as if he knew nothing. In the course of the discussion he would generally get his opponents to recognize the weakness of their arguments, and, forced into a corner, they would finally be obliged to realize what was right and what was wrong.

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Socrates, whose mother was a midwife, used to say that his art was like the art of the midwife. She does not herself give birth to the child, but she is there to help during its delivery. Similarly, Socrates saw his task as helping people to "give birth" to the correct insight, since real understanding must come from within. It cannot be imparted by someone else. And only the understanding that comes from within can lead to true insight.

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Let me put it more precisely: The ability to give birth is a natural characteristic. In the same way, everybody can grasp philosophical truths if they just use their innate reason. Using your innate reason means reaching down inside yourself and using what is there.

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By playing ignorant, Socrates forced the people he met to use their common sense. Socrates could feign ignorance--or pretend to be dumber than he was. We call this Socratic irony . This enabled him to continually expose the weaknesses in people’s thinking. He was not averse to doing this in the middle of the city square. If you met Socrates, you thus might end up being made a fool of publicly.

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So it is not surprising that, as time went by, people found him increasingly exasperating , especially people who had status in the community. "Athens is like a sluggish horse," he is reputed to have said, "and I am the gadfly trying to sting it into life."

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(What do we do with gadflies, Sophie?)

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A Divine Voice It was not in order to torment his fellow beings that Socrates kept on stinging them. Something within him left him no choice. He always said that he had a "divine voice" inside him. Socrates protested, for example, against having any part in condemning people to death. He moreover refused to inform on his political enemies. This was eventually to cost him his life.

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In the year 399 B.C. he was accused of "introducing new gods and corrupting the youth," as well as not believing in the accepted gods. With a slender majority, a jury of five hundred found him guilty.

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He could very likely have appealed for leniency . At least he could have saved his life by agreeing to leave Athens. But had he done this he would not have been Socrates. He valued his conscience--and the truth-- higher than life. He assured the jury that he had only acted in the best interests of the state. He was nevertheless condemned to drink hemlock . Shortly thereafter, he drank the poison in the presence of his friends, and died.

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Why, Sophie? Why did Socrates have to die? People have been asking this question for 2,400 years. However, he was not the only person in history to have seen things through to the bitter end and suffered death for the sake of their convictions.

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I have mentioned Jesus already, and in fact there are several striking parallels between them.

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Both Jesus and Socrates were enigmatic personalities , also to their contemporaries. Neither of them wrote down their teachings, so we are forced to rely on the picture we have of them from their disciples . But we do know that they were both masters of the art of discourse. They both spoke with a characteristic self-assuredness that could fascinate as well as exasperate . And not least, they both believed that they spoke on behalf of something greater than themselves. They challenged the power of the community by criticizing all forms of injustice and corruption . And finally--their activities cost them their lives.

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The trials of Jesus and Socrates also exhibit clear parallels.

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They could certainly both have saved themselves by appealing for mercy, but they both felt they had a mission that would have been betrayed unless they kept faith to the bitter end. And by meeting their death so bravely they commanded an enormous following, also after they had died.

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I do not mean to suggest that Jesus and Socrates were alike. I am merely drawing attention to the fact that they both had a message that was inseparably linked to their personal courage.

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A Joker in Athens Socrates, Sophie! We aren’t done with him yet. We have talked about his method. But what was his philosophical project?

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Socrates lived at the same time as the Sophists. Like them, he was more concerned with man and his place in society than with the forces of nature. As a Roman philosopher, Cicero, said of him a few hundred years later, Socrates "called philosophy down from the sky and established her in the towns and introduced her into homes and forced her to investigate life, ethics , good and evil."

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But Socrates differed from the Sophists in one significant way. He did not consider himself to be a "sophist"--that is, a learned or wise person. Unlike the Sophists, he did not teach for money. No, Socrates called himself a philosopher in the true sense of the word. A "philosopher" really means "one who loves wisdom."

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Are you sitting comfortably, Sophie? Because it is central to the rest of this course that you fully understand the difference between a sophist and a philosopher. The Sophists took money for their more or less hairsplitting expoundings, and sophists of this kind have come and gone from time immemorial. I am referring to all the schoolmasters and self-opinionated know-it-alls who are satisfied with what little they know, or who boast of knowing a whole lot about subjects they haven’t the faintest notion of. You have probably come across a few of these sophists in your young life. A real philosopher, Sophie, is a completely different kettle of fish--the direct opposite, in fact. A philosopher knows that in reality he knows very little. That is why he constantly strives to achieve true insight. Socrates was one of these rare people. He knew that he knew nothing about life and about the world. And now comes the important part: it troubled him that he knew so little.

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A philosopher is therefore someone who recognizes that there is a lot he does not understand, and is troubled by it. In that sense, he is still wiser than all those who brag about their knowledge of things they know nothing about. "Wisest is she who knows she does not know," I said previously . Socrates himself said, "One thing only I know, and that is that I know nothing."

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Remember this statement, because it is an admission that is rare, even among philosophers. Moreover, it can be so dangerous to say it in public that it can cost you your life. The most subversive people are those who ask questions. Giving answers is not nearly as threatening. Any one question can be more explosive than a thousand answers.

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You remember the story of the emperor’s new clothes? The emperor was actually stark naked but none of his subjects dared say so. Suddenly a child burst out, "But he’s got nothing on!" That was a courageous child, Sophie. Like Socrates, who dared tell people how little we humans know. The similarity between children and philosophers is something we have already talked about.

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To be precise: Mankind is faced with a number of difficult questions that we have no satisfactory answers to. So now two possibilities present themselves: We can either fool ourselves and the rest of the world by pretending that we know all there is to know, or we can shut our eyes to the central issues once and for all and abandon all progress. In this sense, humanity is divided. People are, generally speaking, either dead certain or totally indifferent. (Both types are crawling around deep down in the rabbit’s fur!)

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It is like dividing a deck of cards into two piles, Sophie. You lay the black cards in one pile and the red in the other. But from time to time a joker turns up that is neither heart nor club, neither diamond nor spade. Socrates was this joker in Athens. He was neither certain nor indifferent. All he knew was that he knew nothing--and it troubled him. So he became a philosopher--someone who does not give up but tirelessly pursues his quest for truth.

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An Athenian is said to have asked the oracle at Delphi who the wisest man in Athens was. The oracle answered that Socrates of all mortals was the wisest. When Socrates heard this he was astounded , to put it mildly. (He must have laughed, Sophie!) He went straight to the person in the city whom he, and everyone else, thought was excessively wise. But when it turned out that this person was unable to give Socrates satisfactory answers to his questions, Socrates realized that the oracle had been right.

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Socrates felt that it was necessary to establish a solid foundation for our knowledge. He believed that this foundation lay in man’s reason. With his unshakable faith in human reason he was decidedly a rationalist.

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The Right Insight Leads to the Right Action As I have mentioned earlier, Socrates claimed that he was guided by a divine inner voice, and that this "conscience" told him what was right. "He who knows what good is will do good," he said.

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By this he meant that the right insight leads to the right action. And only he who does right can be a " virtuous man." When we do wrong it is because we don’t know any better. That is why it is so important to go on learning. Socrates was concerned with finding clear and universally valid definitions of right and wrong. Unlike the Sophists, he believed that the ability to distinguish between right and wrong lies in people’s reason and not in society.

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You may perhaps think this last part is a bit too obscure, Sophie. Let me put it like this: Socrates thought that no one could possibly be happy if they acted against their better judgment. And he who knows how to achieve happiness will do so. Therefore, he who knows what is right will do right. Because why would anybody choose to be unhappy?

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What do you think, Sophie? Can you live a happy life if you continually do things you know deep down are wrong? There are lots of people who lie and cheat and speak ill of others. Are they aware that these things are not right--or fair, if you prefer? Do you think these people are happy?

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Socrates didn’t.

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When Sophie had read the letter, she quickly put it in the cookie tin and crawled out into the garden. She wanted to go indoors before her mother got back with the shopping in order to avoid any questions about where she had been. And she had promised to do the dishes.

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She had just filled the sink with water when her mother came staggering in with two huge shopping bags. Perhaps that was why her mother said, "You are rather preoccupied these days, Sophie."

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Sophie didn’t know why she said it; the words just tumbled out of her mouth: "So was Socrates."

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"Socrates?"

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Her mother stared at her, wide-eyed.

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"It was just so sad that he had to die as a result," Sophie went on thoughtfully.

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"My goodness! Sophie! I don’t know what I’m to do!"

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"Neither did Socrates. All he knew was that he knew nothing. And yet he was the cleverest person in Athens."

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Her mother was speechless.

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Finally she said, "Is this something you’ve learned at school?"

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Sophie shook her head energetically.

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"We don’t learn anything there. The difference between schoolteachers and philosophers is that school-teachers think they know a lot of stuff that they try to force down our throats. Philosophers try to figure things out together with the pupils."

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"Now we’re back to white rabbits again! You know something? I demand to know who your boyfriend really is. Otherwise I’ll begin to think he is a bit disturbed."

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Sophie turned her back on the dishes and pointed at her mother with the dish mop.

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"It’s not him who’s disturbed. But he likes to disturb others--to shake them out of their rut."

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"That’s enough of that! I think he sounds a bit too impertinent." Sophie turned back to the dishes.

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"He is neither impertinent nor pertinent," said Sophie. "But he is trying to reach real wisdom. That’s the great difference between a real joker and all the other cards in the deck."

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"Did you say joker?"

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Sophie nodded. "Have you ever thought about the fact that there are a lot of hearts and diamonds in a pack of cards? And a lot of spades and clubs. But there’s only one joker."

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"Good grief, how you talk back, Sophie!"

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"And how you ask!"

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Her mother had put all the groceries away. Now she took the newspaper and went into the living room. Sophie thought she closed the door more loudly than usual.

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Sophie finished doing the dishes and went upstairs to her room. She had put the red silk scarf on the top shelf of the closet with the Lego blocks. She took it down and examined it carefully.

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Hilde ...

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