Alberto sat staring down at the table. He finally turned and looked out of the window.
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"It’s clouding over," said Sophie.
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"Yes, it’s muggy ."
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"Are you going to talk about Berkeley now?"
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"He was the next of the three British empiricists. But as he is in a category of his own in many ways, we will first concentrate on David Hume, who lived from 1711 to 1776. He stands out as the most important of the empiricists. He is also significant as the person who set the great philosopher Immanuel Kant on the road to his philosophy."
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"Doesn’t it matter to you that I’m more interested in Berkeley’s philosophy?"
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"That’s of no importance. Hume grew up near Edinburgh in Scotland. His family wanted him to take up law but he felt ’an insurmountable resistance to everything but philosophy and learning.’ He lived in the Age of Enlightenment at the same time as great French thinkers like Voltaire and Rousseau, and he traveled widely in Europe before returning to settle down in Edinburgh toward the end of his life. His main work, A Treatise of Human Nature, was published when Hume was twenty-eight years old, but he claimed that he got the idea for the book when he was only fifteen."
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"I see I don’t have any time to waste."
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"You have already begun."
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"But if I were going to formulate my own philosophy, it would be quite different from anything I’ve heard up to now."
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"Is there anything in particular that’s missing?"
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"Well, to start with, all the philosophers you have talked about are men. And men seem to live in a world of their own. I am more interested in the real world, where there are flowers and animals and children that are born and grow up. Your philosophers are always talking about ’man’ and ’humans,’ and now here’s another treatise on ’human nature.’ It’s as if this ’human’ is a middle-aged man. I mean, life begins with pregnancy and birth, and I’ve heard nothing about diapers or crying babies so far. And hardly anything about love and friendship."
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"You are right, of course. But Hume was a philosopher who thought in a different way. More than any other philosopher, he took the everyday world as his starting point. I even think Hume had a strong feeling for the way children--the new citizens of the world-- experienced life."
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"I’d better listen then."
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"As an empiricist, Hume took it upon himself to clean up all the woolly concepts and thought constructions that these male philosophers had invented. There were piles of old wreckage , both written and spoken, from the Middle Ages and the rationalist philosophy of the seventeenth century. Hume proposed the return to our spontaneous experience of the world. No philosopher ’will ever be able to take us behind the daily experiences or give us rules of conduct that are different from those we get through reflections on everyday life,’ he said."
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"Sounds promising so far. Can you give any examples?"
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"In the time of Hume there was a widespread belief in angels. That is, human figures with wings. Have you ever seen such a creature, Sophie?"
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"No."
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"But you have seen a human figure?"
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"Dumb question."
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"You have also seen wings?"
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"Of course, but not on a human figure."
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"So, according to Hume, an ’angel’ is a complex idea. It consists of two different experiences which are not in fact related, but which nevertheless are associated in man’s imagination. In other words, it is a false idea which must be immediately rejected. We must tidy up all our thoughts and ideas, as well as our book collections, in the same way. For as Hume put it: If we take in our hands any volume ... let us ask, ’Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?’ No. ’Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?’ No. Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion."
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"That was drastic."
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"But the world still exists. More fresh and sharply outlined than ever. Hume wanted to know how a child experiences the world. Didn’t you say that many of the philosophers you have heard about lived in their own world, and that you were more interested in the real world?"
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"Something like that."
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"Hume could have said the same thing. But let us follow his train of thought more closely."
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"I’m with you."
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"Hume begins by establishing that man has two different types of perceptions, namely impressions and ideas. By ’impressions’ he means the immediate sensation of external reality. By ’ideas’ he means the recollection of such impressions."
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"Could you give me an example?"
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"If you burn yourself on a hot oven, you get an immediate ’impression.’ Afterward you can recollect that you burned yourself. That impression insofar as it is recalled is what Hume calls an ’idea.’ The difference is that an impression is stronger and livelier than your reflective memory of that impression. You could say that the sensation is the original and that the idea, or reflection, is only a pale imitation. It is the impression which is the direct cause of the idea stored in the mind."
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"I follow you--so far."
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"Hume emphasizes further that both an impression and an idea can be either simple or complex. You remember we talked about an apple in connection with Locke. The direct experience of an apple is an example of a complex impression."
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"Sorry to interrupt, but is this terribly important?"
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"Important? How can you ask? Even though philosophers may have been preoccupied with a number of pseudoproblems, you mustn’t give up now over the construction of an argument. Hume would probably agree with Descartes that it is essential to construct a thought process right from the ground."
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"Okay, okay."
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"Hume’s point is that we sometimes form complex ideas for which there is no corresponding object in the physical world. We’ve already talked about angels. Previously we referred to crocophants. Another example is Pegasus, a winged horse. In all these cases we have to admit that the mind has done a good job of cutting out and pasting together all on its own. Each element was once sensed, and entered the theater of the mind in the form of a real ’impression.’ Nothing is ever actually invented by the mind. The mind puts things together and constructs false ’ideas.’ "
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"Yes, I see. That is important."
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"All right, then. Hume wanted to investigate every single idea to see whether it was compounded in a way that does not correspond to reality. He asked: From which impression does this idea originate? First of all he had to find out which ’single ideas’ went into the making of a complex idea. This would provide him with a critical method by which to analyze our ideas, and thus enable him to tidy up our thoughts and notions."
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"We soon realize that our idea of ’heaven’ is compounded of a great many elements. Heaven is made up of ’pearly gates,"streets of gold,"angels’ by the score and so on and so forth . And still we have not broken everything down into single elements, for pearly gates, streets of gold, and angels are all complex ideas in themselves. Only when we recognize that our idea of heaven consists of single notions such as ’pearl,"gate,"street,"gold,"white-robed figure,’ and ’wings’ can we ask ourselves if we ever really had any such ’simple impressions.’ "
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"We did. But we cut out and pasted all these ’simple impressions’ into one idea."